Tte mnxul Stitxttt &ZXXZ& 

Edited by L. H. Bailbt 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



J1^^ 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



A TREATISE UPON THE NATURE AND QUALITIES OP 

DAIRY MILK AND THE MANUFACTURE 

OF BUTTER AND CHEESE 



HENRY HAWING 

PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL, HUSBANDRY IN THE 
CORNELL UNIVERSITY 



BhJVISED AND ENLARGED 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO.. Ltd. 

1913 

All rights reserved 



.'' 






^ 



Copyright. 1897 and 1913 
By HENRY H. WING 



Set up and electrotyped February, 1897 

Reprinted with corrections February, 1898, July, 1899, July, 1900. Jaauary, 1902, 

February, 1903. January and September, 1904, July, 1905, April, 1906,- 

August, 1907, June, 1908, January and July, 1909, July, 1911 

New edition, 1913 



J. Horace McFarland Coiiipany 
Harrisburg-, Pa. 



©CLA332213 



^ 



Tn TOs Fatter 



AS A SLIGHT TRIBUTE TO THE CAREFUL TRAINING AND 
WISE AND SYMPATHETIC COUNSEL THAT 
SERVED TO INSTIL IN THREE FARM BOYS A LOVE FOR ALL 
THAT PERTAINS TO FARM LIFE 

TlTTS little iw0rk is nffi^xiirxnutzJg itiscribjeil 



(v> 



PREFACE 

The revolution in dairy practice brought about 
by the introduction of the centrifugal cream sepa- 
rator and the Babcock test for fat> and by a more 
definite knowledge regarding the .various fermenta- 
tions that so greatly influence milk and the manu- 
facture of its products, has seemed to demand the 
publication of a small handbook that shall give 
to the dairyman, and particularly to the dairy 
student, in simple, concise form, the principles un- 
derlying modern dairy practice. In attempting to 
meet this demand, I have had largely in view the 
needs of my own students, while still keeping in 
mind the general dairy reader. 

In the collation of the information, where so 
many points are still unsettled, it is of course dif- 
ficult in all cases to distinguish fact from conjec- 
ture. The aim has been at all times to give 
the present state of knowledge as supported by 
the weight of evidence and the opinions of those 
whose authority is highest. In how far this has 
been successful time alone can tell. It would be 

(vii) 



viii Preface 

too much to hope that every conclusion will stand 
the test of further investigation and experience. 

Dairy practice in the United States owes much 
to the investigations of the Agricultural Experiment 
Stations. Of the results of their labor free use 
has been made in various ways, and in many cases 
without specific mention at the particular place. 
Without wishing to make distinctions, particular 
acknowledgment is here rendered to the reports 
and bulletins of the Stations in Maine, New Hamp- 
shire, Vermont, Connecticut (Storrs), Canada, New 
York (State), New York (Cornell), New Jersey, 
Pennsylvania, Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin and Minne- 
sota. For those who wish to make more extended 
investigations, a bibliography is added in the Ap- 
pendix, giving references to many bulletins. 

Thanks are due to D. H. Burrell & Co., the 
Vermont Farm Machine Co., the DeLaval Separator 
Co., the Star Milk Cooler Co., the Champion Milk 
Cooler Co., J. F. Hodgkin, and F. B. Fargo & Co., 
for the use of electrotypes. 

Acknowledgment is also due my colleagues^ 
Messrs. Cavanaugh, Durand, Hall and VanWagenen, 
for valuable assistance, and to Professor L. H. 
Bailey for much friendly counsel and many useful 
suggestions. 

HENRY H. WING. 

Cornell. University Dairy, 
January 1897. 



PEEFACE TO THE NEW EDITION 

In the preparation of a new edition of Milk and 
Its Products, in addition to making such changes as 
are necessary to bring the body of the work up-to- 
date, it has seemed well to add chapters on dairy cat- 
tle and the production of milk, on certified milk, and 
on ice-cream, manufacture. Brief directions for sim- 
ple bacteriological determinations have also been 
added. The latter has been prepared by my daughter, 
Lois W. Wing, late assistant in dairy bacteriology, in 
the New York State College of Agriculture. The 
chapter on certified milk was written by Mr. George 
C. Watson, formerly manager of the Tully Farms, 
and grateful acknowledgment is hereby made to both 
for their assistance. 

HENRY H. WING. 

New York State College of Agriculture 
Cornell University, July, 1912 



(ix) 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I 

Secretion of Milk 

Milk defined — Mammary glands — Udder — Internal structure of 
udder and teats — Ultimate follicle — Secretion of milk — Incen- 
tives to secretion — Amount and duration of flow — Effect of 
succeeding pregnancy — Incomplete renioval of milk — Reg- 
ularity and frequency of milking — Control of animal over 
secretion. 

Pages 1-15 

CHAPTER II 

Composition of Milk 

Milk constituents — Colostrum — Specific gravity — The fats — The 
volatile fats — The non-volatile fats — The albuminoids — The 
sugar — 'The ash — Other constituents — Variations in quality 
of milk. 

Pages 16-34 

CHAPTER III 

The Production of Milk — Dairy Cattle 

Milk a maternal function — The cow the only commercial milk 
producer — Factors in the production of milk — The lactation 
period — The operation of milking — Relation of form to capac- 
ity — Value of records of production — ^^Necessity for keeping 
records — Food as a factor in milk production — The ideal 
ration — Selection of breed — Pure breds and grades— Main- 
tenance of the dairy herd — Selection of the bull — Management 
of the bull — Grading up the herd — Major and minor dairy 
breeds — Jerseys — Guernseys — Holstein-Friesians — Ayrshires — 
Shorthorns — Red Polled — Brown Swiss — Dutch Belted — 
Devons, 

Pages 35-76 

(xi) 



xii Contents 

CHAPTER IV 

The Testing of Milk 

Gravimetric anaylsis — History of milk tests — Cream gauges — 
Specific gravity — Lactometers — Churn tests — Lactobutyrom- 
eter — Pioscope — Lactoscope — Soxhlet's Method — Lactocrite 
— Fjord's control apparatus — Milk tests in the United States — 
Short's method — Method of Failyer and Willard — Parsons' 
method — Iowa Station test — Cochran's method — Babcock test 
— Beimling test — Gerber's method — Butyrometer — Details of 
Babcock test — The centrifugal machine — -The glassware — 
Sampling the milk — Composite sampling — Making the test — 
The acid — -Whirhng^ — Reading — Cleaning the glassware. 

Pages 77-107 

CHAPTER V 

The Ferments and Fermentations of Milk and 
Their Control 

Tendency to undergo change — Germs of fermentation — Bacteria — 
Presence of bacteria in milk — Kinds of bacteria in milk — 
Fermentations of milk — Relation of milk bacteria to the 
human system — Lactic fermentations — Fermentations affect- 
ing the albuminoids — Butyric fermentations — Control of fer- 
mentations — Prevention of infection — Holding at low tem- 
peratures — Destruction of germs in milk — Pasteurization — 
Selection of milk for pasteurization. 

Pages 108-124 

CHAPTER VI 

Determination of Bacteria in Milk 

Bacteria as a measure of dirt in milk — The laboratory — Apparatus — 
Media — Sterilization — Cleaning glassware — Procedure for plat- 
ing — Checks. 

Pages 125-134 

CHAPTER VII 

Market Milk 

Milk for consumption — Cleanliness — Treatment after drawing — 
Aeration — Delivery — Bad flavors in milk — Quality of milk 
for consumption — Control of milk supply — Cream for con- 
sumption — Pasteurized cream — Quality of cream. 

Pages 135-148 



Contents xiii 

CHAPTER VIII 

Certified Milk 

Definition — Origin of certified milk — Standards — Production — 
Sanitary stables — Selection of the cows — Care of the cows — 
Care of the stable — Milking — Care of utensils — Cost of pro- 
duction. 

Pages 149-162 

CHAPTER IX 

Separation of Cream 

Gravity creaming — Shallow-pan creaming: — Deep setting system — 
Centrifugal separation — Conditions affecting completeness of 
separation — Conditions affecting the relative amount of 
skimmed milk and cream — Contrivances in the bowl to increase 
the efficiency of separation — Mechanical conditions affecting 
separation — Efficiency of separation in centrifugal machines — 
Desirable and undesirable features of a separator. 

Pages 163-194 

CHAPTER X 

The Ripening of Cream 

Means of producing lactic acid — Temperature of ripening — Amount 
of acid necessary — Acid tests — Determination of lactic acid- 
in milk and cream — Further effects of ripening — Churning 
cream of different degrees of ripeness — Bad effects of over- 
ripening. 

Pages 195-209 

CHAPTER XI 

Churning 

Viscosity of the milk — Ripeness of cream — Temperature — Nature 
of agitation — Quality of the globules of fat — End of churn- 
ing — Difficult churning. 

Pages 210-219 

CHAPTER XII 

Finishing and Marketing Butter 

Washing the butter — Working — Salting — Brine salting — Pack- 
ing and marketing — Composition and quality of butter. 

Pages 220-232 



xiv Contents 

CHAPTER XIII 

Milk for Cheese Making 

Theory of cheese making — Quality of milk for cheese making — 
Loss of fat — Cooling — Aeration — Ripening — Rennet tests — 
Degree of ripeness necessary — Starters — Rennet — Removal 
of whey. 

Pages 233-250 

CHAPTER XIV 

Cheddar Cheese Making 

'Setting — Cutting — Heating — Cheddaring — Grinding — Salting — 
Curing — Difficulties likely to occur in cheddar cheese mak- 
ing — Qualities of cheese. 

Pages 251-268 

CHAPTER XV 

Other Varieties of Cheese 

Home-trade or stirred-curd cheese — Sage cheese — Young Amer- 
ica — Picnics — Pineapple — Truckle — American Neuf chatel — 
Philadelphia cream cheese — Limburger — Imitation Swiss — 
Prepared cheese — Enghsh cheese — Stilton — Cheshire — Lanca- 
. shire — Derbyshire — Leicestershire — Wensleydale — Gorgon- 
zola — Emmenthaler or Swiss — Edam — Gouda — Roquefort — 
Brie — Camembert — D'Isigny — Pont L'Eveque — Port du Salut 
— Parmesan. 

Pages 269-298 

CHAPTER XVI 

Ice Cream 

Relation to dairy practice — Classification — Quality of cream — 
Sugar — Flavors — Fillers — Freezing and packiag — Transferring 
— Freezers — Recipes — Scoring. 

Pages 299-314 

CHAPTER XVII 

Other and By-Products of the Dairy 

Skimmed milk, buttermilk and whey — Condensed milk — Dried 
casein — Milk sugar — Dutch cheese — Whey cheese — Cheese 
food — Koumiss — Kephir — Wheyn. 

Pages 315-325 



Contents xv 

CHAPTER XVIII 

Butter AND Cheese Factories 

Location of creameries — Arrangement of building — Construc- 
tion — Cheese factories — Combined butter and cheese fac- 
tories — Farm dairy buildings. 

Pages 32&-337 

CHAPTER XIX 

Statistics and Economics of the Dairy Industry 

Increase in dairy production — Development of the factory sys- 
tem — Dairy legislation — ^Dairy markets. 

Pages 338-347 

APPENDIX 

A. Useful rules and tests. 

Pages 349-362 

B. Metric system of weights and measures. 

Pages 363-364 

C. Legal standards for milk in the various states — The oleomar- 

gerine law^The filled-cheese law— The New York state dairy 
law. 

Pages 365-403 

D. References to Agricultural Experiment Station reports and 

bulletins. 

Pages 404-415 

INDEX 

Pages 417-433 



i 

^ 




/ 



'm 



I 




Udders of good and poor types. 

From Bulletin No. 62, Purdue Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta., by permissioH. 

See page 3. 



MILK AND ITS PRODUCTS 



CHAPTER I 



THE SECRETION OF MILK 



The females of all animals that suckle their 
young (class Mammalia) secrete for this purpose a 
special fluid which is known as milk. It is an 
opaque yellowish white fluid, with a slight alkaline 
reaction and a faintly sweetish taste. It consists 
of an emulsion of fats in a watery solution of 
alkaline salts, casein and sugar. It is secreted in 
two special glands situated without the body cavity 
on either side of the median line, and known as 
the mammary glands or mammae. 

Mammary glands. — While, strictly speaking, there 
are but two glands, each gland may be divided 
into two or more lobes, each having a separate open- 
ing ; thus, while there are ordinarily but two simple 
glands in the ewe, mare and goat, in the cow there 
are four or six, in the cat and bitch six to ten, and 
in the sow ten to fourteen. In animals having 
multiple glands, the mammae occupy nearly the whole 
of the lower part of the chest and abdomen. In 
ther animals the glands are confined either to the 
nest or abdomen. In many animals each gland 
A . (1) 



2 Milh and Its Products 

or lobe is furnislied with a single opening connect- 
ing with a single duct, in others several ducts 
open independently upon the surface of a single 
nipple or teat. The mammary gland is a true 
organ of secretion in the sense that its product (milk) 
contains substances not before existing in the blood, 
that are formed during the process of secretion in the 
gland itself. In the cow the mammary glands are lo- 
cated on the posterior portion of the abdomen be- 
tween the hind legs, and each gland is made up of 
two lobes or quarters, each having a single outlet 
furnished with a single duct, though there are often 
one and sometimes two rudimentary ducts upon the 
rear quarters, and which are occasionally developed to 
such an extent that milk may be drawn from them 
in small quantities. The whole organ is spoken of as 
the udder, and the ducts as teats. While the mam- 
mary gland is essentially a female organ, it is present 
in a rudimentary condition in the males of all mam- 
mals, and in exceptional cases in man and in the lower 
animals the organs of males have developed to such a 
degree as to secrete milk. 

The cow^s udder. — The udder is enclosed in a fold 
of skin, which is here thinner and softer than upon 
other parts of the body, and is supported by a band 
of fibrous tissue that springs from the median line of 
the body and extends through the whole substance of 
the gland. It varies very much in size and shape 
in different animals and in the same animal at dif- 
ferent times. Its size is not always an indication 
of the secreting powers of an animal, since the num- 



structure of the Udder 3 

ber of true secreting follicles does not necessarily bear 
any relation to the apparent size. The udder in a 
good cow should be large and well developed ; it 
should occupy the whole space between the hind 
legs, extending well up between the thighs and 
well forward upon the belly. It should be held 
firmly against the wall of the abdomen. It should 
be level or nearly so on the bottom, and the four 
quarters should be as nearly as possible equally 
developed and each furnished with a cylindrical per- 
pendicular teat of moderate length. The whole 
organ should diminish rapidly in size as the milk 
is withdrawn. The hair upon the udder should be 
fairly abundant, fine and soft, and abundantly sup- 
plied with a brownish dandruff. 

The substance of the udder is composed of the 
fibrous band, already mentioned, connective tissue, 
fatty tissue, milk ducts or canals, true secreting 
cells (acini, ultimate follicles, alveoli), veins, arte- 
ries, nerves and lymphatics, the whole making up a 
reddish gray mass of spongy texture. 

The udder varies very much, in different indi- 
viduals, in size and shape as well as- in internal 
structure and secreting capacity. In some animals 
the amount of connective and fatty tissue is much 
larger than in others. Such udders are said to be 
"fleshy," and while usually of large size and good 
shape, are deficient in true secreting capacity. They 
are firm to the touch, particularly when empty, and 
do not markedly diminish in size when the milk 
is withdrawn. It is generally supposed that such 



4 Milk and Its Products 

udders are more subject to inflammations and in- 
flammatory diseases than those with less fatty tissue. 
In many cows the fibrous net -work that supports 
the udder is held firmly up to the under side of the 
abdomen. If, in connection with this, the udder has 
comparatively little connective and fatty tissue, the 
animal will have an udder apparently small, but with 
large capacity for secretion. In old cows, particu- 
larly those that have been large milkers, the fibrous 
bands often become largely relaxed, so that the 
udder falls nearly to the ground, and appears to be 
of enormous size. 

Internal structure of the udder and teats. — The 
teat is simply a canal surrounded by muscular walls 
and closed at the extremity by an involuntary 
sphincter muscle, which varies much in rigidity in 
different animals ; often it is so lax that the pressure 
of a small amount of milk in the canal is sufficient 
to open it and the animal leaks her milk. In other 
animals it requires a strong effort of the hand to 
draw the milk. When desirable, the rigidity may be 
overcome by keeping a smooth wooden plug of suf- 
ficient size to moderately dilate the opening in the 
end of the teat till the muscle relaxes sufficiently 
to permit easy drawing of the milk, or the muscle 
may be partially divided with the knife in the 
hands of a skilful operator. At the top of the 
teat, or bottom of the udder, there is a small 
cavity known as the milk cistern, serving to hold 
the milk after its secretion until it is drawn. 
It is of varying capacity, up to half a pint, 



Arrangement of Milk Ducts 5 

and is partially separated from the canal of the 
teat by a more or less well - marked constriction 
in the muscular walls of the upper part of the 
teat. From the milk cisterns a system of canals 
or so-called milk ducts extends to all portions of 
the udder. These ducts are larger near their open- 
ing into the milk cistern, and diminish in size 
as they rise through the udder. They branch and 
anastomose freely in all directions, and finally end 
in a group of small sac -like bodies, the ultimate 
follicles. The system of milk ducts arising from 
each teat is practically distinct, though there is 
more or less communication between the smaller 
ducts in the upper portions of the two quarters 
on the same side of the animal. This renders 
it possible to draw a part of the milk secreted 
in the hind quarter from the forward teat on 
the same side, and vice versa. There is no com- 
munication between the ducts on opposite sides 
of the animal. At the junctions of the larger 
ducts there are greater or smaller enlargements, 
forming small cavities or milk reservoirs, which 
serve the same purpose as the reservoirs at 
the top of the teat. The branching points of 
all the ducts, large and small, are guarded by 
sphincter muscles. These muscles are connected 
with the abdominal muscles of the animal, and she 
is able to more or less completely close them at 
will, and so "hold up" her milk. It requires a 
strong effort on the part of the animal to com- 
pletely close the larger ducts in the lower part of 



6 Milk and Its Products 

the udder ; a comparatively slight effort is all that is 
necessary to close the smaller vessels. Animals vary 
greatly both in the control they possess over these 
muscles and in their disposition to use it. Very few 
can completely close the larger ducts, and very many 
rarel}' exercise whatever power they do possess. Sud- 
den fright, the presence of strange persons or animals 
in the stable, any irregularity in the time or manner 
of feeding or milking, and slight feverish conditions, 
particularly sexual heat, are the most common pro- 
vocatives to holding up milk. There are very many 
cows that contract the habit of holding up the milk 
upon the slightest provocation, and if the habit is 
once formed it is almost impossible to cure it, and 
the result is that the usefulness of the animal as 
a milk producer is largely destroyed, for the reten- 
tion of the milk in the udder interferes greatly 
with the activity of secretion, and in a short time 
permanently lessens it. 

The ultimate follicles. — The milk ducts, after 
branching and anastomosing in all directions, finally 
end in a group of small sac -like bodies known as 
acini, or ultimate follicles. It is in these small 
bodies that the secretion of the milk takes place. 
They are about l-30th of an inch in diameter, and 
are found in groups of three to five, with a com- 
mon outlet at the end of each branching duct. 
In form and appearance they present marked 
changes according to the condition of the animal. 
During active lactation they are found in their 
highest development. When lactation ceases, the 



Secretion of Milk 7 

smaller ducts become much retracted, and the 
follicles shrink in size and finally become rudimen- 
tary, or even entirely disappear, until under the 
stimulus of a succeeding pregnancy, the whole 
gland renews its activity, and the ducts and fol- 
licles regain their former size and appearance. 
New ducts and follicles may also be formed up to 
about the fifth or sixth year, and the power of 
the animal to secrete milk be thereby increased. 
Surrounding the follicles, and intimately attached 
to them, are capillary blood vessels, both veins and 
arteries, and through the cells of the membranes 
making up the walls of all these vessels the fluids 
of the blood freely pass into the cavity of the 
follicles by means of osmosis, or transudation. 
The cavity of the follicle is lined with epithelial 
cells, that during lactation are filled with proto- 
plasm, and are capable of rapid multiplication, 
growth, and degeneration, at the same time that 
the cell contents are undergoing rapid and exten- 
sive changes. 

The secretion of milk. — The milk is formed from 
the blood, partly by the transudation of the blood 
serum directly into the cavity of the milk follicle, 
and partly by a transformation of the contents of 
the epithelial cells lining the cavity of the follicle, 
which at this time are especially active. The 
water passes directly from the capillaries into the 
milk follicles and ducts, carrying with it the min- 
eral constituents in solution and a part of the al- 
bumin of the blood serum; but by far the larger 



8 Milk and Its Products 

pai't of tlie albumin is in some way changed dur- 
ing its passage from the capillaries, and appears in 
the cavity of the follicle as the casein of the milk. 




Fig. 1. Section tlirough alveoli of the mammary gland of the dog in first and 
second stages of secretion. From Meade Smith, after Heidenhain. 



When milk is being secreted, the lining cells of 
the follicle are in a state of constant activity. 
New cells are constantly being formed by budding 
or fission (the cell elongates, a partition forms 
across it, and the tw^o halves so divided enlarge to 
the size of the mother cell, and there are two cells 
where but one existed before), and older cells are 
as constantly breaking down. While this is going 
on, the cell contents, consisting m^ainly of protoplasm, 
become changed into a globule of fat, and the 
globules so formed are either extruded through the 
cell wall into the cavity of the follicle, or set free 
by the breaking down and reabsorption of the cell 
wall. In all probability both processes take place. 
Small portions of the fat may also be carried over 
directly from the blood and appear in the milk 
without change. The milk sugar is probably formed 



Incentives to Secretion 9 

through a chemical change in the contents of these 
lining cells, since but minute quantities of sugar 
are found in the blood. 

Incentives to secretion. — Maternity is the prime 
incentive to the secretion of milk. While there is 
a distinct increase in the development of the mammae 
upon attaining puberty, it is not until pregnancy is 
well advanced that the organ attains anywhere near 
its full development, or that there is any activity 
in the true secreting cells. In the virgin animal, 
and up to within a short time of parturition, the 
cavities and ducts of the udder contain a watery 
saline fluid, but true milk does not appear until a 
short time before, and in some cases not until after, 
parturition. The immediate stimulus to the produc- 
tion of milk is the turning of the blood that went 
to nourish the foetus from the arteries of the uterus 
to the arteries of the udder. The pressure of blood 
in the vessels of the udder stimulates the secreting 
cells to great activity, and the cells, hitherto dor- 
mant, begin to multiply rapidly. When this activity 
is first set up, the various processes of secretion are 
more or less incomplete, so that the milk first se 
creted is very different in character from that se- 
creted afterwards, and is known as colostrum. The 
colostrum contains in the first place considerably 
less water than^ normal milk; in the second place, 
the transformation of albumin into casein is only 
partial, so that colostrum contains large amounts of 
albumin; and finally, when secretion of milk begins, 
the cells of the follicle multiply more rapidly than 



10 Milk and Its Products 

they can be reabsorbed, and portions of partially 
broken down cells break away from the walls of 
the follicle and appear in the colostrum. Gradually 
the colostrum takes on the character of normal 
milk, and in the course of four or five days the 
change is complete. Other characteristics of colos- 
trum are discussed in detail in the next chapter. 

While maternity is the prime cause of secretion, 
it is not the only means of stimulation to the ac- 
tivity of the udder, nor is it a necessary prerequisite 
to the secretion of milk. The regular removal 
of the saline fluid in the gland of the virgin 
animal, or even the stimulation of the organ by the 
friction of the hand or the suckling of a calf, may 
be sufficient to cause the secretion of milk of nor- 
mal character in considerable quantities. In the 
same way and under the same exciting causes, other 
glands of the body, notably the lymphatics in the 
arm pits and the rudimentary mammae of males, 
have been known to secrete a fluid resembling milk 
in all essential characteristics. 

Amount and duration of flow. — With wild ani- 
mals in a state of nature, the milk is secreted only 
in amount sufficient for the needs of the young 
animal, and only until the young is sufficiently de- 
veloped to secure its food independently of the 
motTier. Under the influence of domestication the 
cow has been brought to increase her flow of milk 
many fold, and the time during which it is se- 
creted has been lengthened until it is almost, and 
indeed is, in some cases quite continuous. A dis- 



Dependence upon Circulation of Blood 11 

cussion of the agencies by means of which this 
most important result has been brought about 
would open up the whole question of the selection, 
breeding and training of cows, as well as every- 
thing pertaining to the science of foods and feed- 
ing, which is not here possible. There are, how- 
ever, some physiological conditions affecting the 
secretion of milk that may be mentioned. 

Milk is secreted from the blood. The amount 
of milk secreted will, therefore, depend upon the 
amount of blood passing through the udder, and 
this, in turn, will depend upon the number and 
size of the blood vessels, not only in the udder it- 
self, but leading to it and away from it, the vigor 
of the cii'culation, the supply of food to the ani- 
mal, and her capacity to eat, digest and assimilate 
it and turn it into blood. From or shortly after 
parturition, there is a constant tendency of the 
blood vessels in the udder to shrink in size, and 
consequently a constantly diminishing flow of milk. 
When the period of lactation advances at the same 
time that the pastures are growing more scanty 
and less succulent, this diminution is fairly regular 
and constant, especially after from three to five 
months of the period of lactation have passed. This 
tendency to shrinkage in the size of the blood 
vessels of the udder may be held in check in great 
measure by an abundant supply of nutritious food, 
particularly if it is of a succulent character, and 
it is not at all uncommon to find cows secreting 
milk in regular amount, or "holding out," for eight 



12 Milk and Its Products 

or ten months. But in this respect the individ- 
uality of the animal plays an important part, so 
that wide variations are seen in different individ- 
uals under the same conditions of food and care. 
After a shrinkage in the flow has once taken place, 
it is extremely difficult to again increase it by 
increased food until after another calving. 

Effect of succeeding pregnancy. — The effect of the 
animal again becoming pregnant is to decrease the 
flow of milk. The cause of this decrease seems, 
in many cases, to be two-fold: First, a sympa- 
thetic effect, following immediately upon conception, 
and secondly, a shrinkage due to a turning away of 
a part of the blood from the udder to nourish the 
growing foetus. This shrinkage does not become 
marked until the fourth or fifth month of preg- 
nancy. In this respect, as in their power to "hold 
out," individual animals show the widest variation. 
With very many the effect of becoming again preg- 
nant is so slight as to be scarcely noticeable ; with 
others it is so great as to materially interfere with 
the usefulness of the animal. 

Incomplete removal of milk. — One of the most 
important means of checking the secretion of milk 
lies in the incomplete removal of milk already se- 
creted. We have already seen that the removal 
of the saline fluid from the ducts of the inactive 
gland is an efficient stimulus to secretion. So, too, 
the presence of milk in the ducts acts as a check 
to further secretion. Further than that, it not 
only checks secretion but is an actual irritant, suffi- 



Regularity of Milking 13 

cient in many instances to give rise to inflammations 
of a serious character. Clean milking is . one of 
the most nnportant aids in keeping up and pro- 
longing the flow of milk. 

Regiilarity and frequency of milking. — While the 
process of milk secretion is a continuous one, it is 
not entirely uniform. There is reason to believe 
that the secretion is considerably more rapid while 
the operation of milking is going on, and that a con- 
siderable portion of the whole amount is then secreted. 
On the other hand, the distension of the milk ducts 
and reservoirs by milk already secreted acts as more 
or less of a check upon the activity of the follicles, 
and so lessens the rapidity of secretion. While for 
these reasons it would be inferred that frequent 
milking would lead to increased secretion, the limits 
of such increased secretion are' moderate, and beyond 
a certain point no increased flow of milk is secured 
by increasing the frequency of the milking periods. 
In all cases where the udder becomes unduly dis- 
tended with milk between periods, an increased flow 
will be secured by milking oftener. The common 
practice is to milk twice in the twenty -four hours, 
and the nearer the time can be divided into equal pe- 
riods the more uniform will be the secretion. Where 
more frequent . milking is practiced the same principle 
will hold. Not only is regularity in the period from 
morning to night of importance, but regularity in 
the time of milking from day to day is equally so. 
A difference of an hour in the time of milking will 
frequently make a difference of 10 per cent in the 



14 Milh and Its Products 

amount secreted, and where these irregularities are 
frequent, will soon result in a considerably diminished 
flow. The amount of milk given is also considerably 
affected by the way in which the milk is drawn. 
In general, it may be said that rapid milking is con- 
ducive to a large flow. In any event, the milk 
should be drawn so that no discomfort is caused 
the animal, and in this respect there is great dif- 
ference in milkers. A rapid, uniform stroke, with 
a firm touch on the teat, and a stroking motion to 
the lower part of the udder, gives the best results. 
Babcock has found that certain milkers uniformly get 
not only more but richer milk from the same cow. 
Control of the animal over secretion. — The secre- 
tion of milk is involuntary. The animal can no 
more control it than it can control the respiration 
or the circulation of the blood. Yet there are 
numerous conditions of the animal that have a 
more or less direct effect upon the secretion of milk. 
These conditions have not only to do with the physi- 
cal condition of the animal — as the supply of food, 
the circulation of the blood, extremes of temperature, 
etc. — but extend in large measure to the nervous 
organization and condition of the animal. We have 
already seen that the animal may by an exercise of 
will more or less completely control the withdrawal 
of milk already secreted ; so, too, there are nervous 
conditions that have a great effect upon the actual 
secretion. Sudden fright, an unfamiliar milker or 
attendant, unusual excitement, sexual excitement, or 
the presence of an animal in heat in the herd, an 



Physical Condition of Animal 15 

unusual amount of exercise, or any one of many 
other causes, may be sufficient to decrease tile secre- 
tion of milk one -half in any one day. The effect 
of such disturbances is usually quickly overcome, but 
their frequent recurrence leads to a permanent diminu- 
tion of the secretion. The nervous organization 
of the animal is a most important factor in deter- 
mining the effect of these various disturbing influ- 
ences. Many of the animals in which the powers of 
digestion, nutrition and secretion are most highly de- 
veloped are possessed also of a highly developed and 
sensitive nervous system, and hence are easily affected 
by any disturbing condition. With all such animals 
it is of the utmost importance that every condition 
surrounding the animal should be as regular' and 
uniform as possible. Other animals of equal capacity 
show a remarkably quiet and phlegmatic nervous 
temperament, and are consequently slightly or not at 
all affected by such disturbing influences. Such an- 
imals are of great value to the milk producer, for 
with the utmost care and- regularity there are always 
disturbing influences beyond the control of the 
dairyman. 



CHAPTER II 

COMPOSITION OF MILK 

The constituents of milk are numerous and of 
diverse character, but may be easily classified into a 
few well marked groups as follows: (a) water, (b) 
fats, (c) substances containing nitrogen (albumi- 
noids), (d) sugar, (e) ash. Excepting the water, they 
are collectively known as milk solids. The solids 
exist partly in solution, partly in semi -solution, and 
partly in suspension in the water. Milk from the 
various classes of animals has the same general 
constitution and properties, and varies only in the 
relative proportions of the various proximate con- 
stituents. Cow's milk is typical of all milks, and as 
it is the only milk used in processes of manufac- 
ture in the United States, all of our discussion.^ 
have reference to it alone. In various other coun- 
tries milk from the goat, ass, mare and ewe is con- 
siderably used, not only as food but for the man- 
ufacture of various products. Indeed the peculiar- 
ities of some of these are supposed to be largely due 
to their having been made from the milk of ani- 
mals other than the cow. Koumiss, made from 
mare's milk in Arabia, and Roquefort cheese, made 
largely from ewe's milk, are noteworthy examples. 

(16) 



Percentage Composition 17 

All of the milk constituents are more or less va- 
riable in quantity, and many of them vary widely; 
hence it is not possible to make a statement of the 
average percentage composition of milk that will give 
more than a general idea of its composition. The 
following are taken from recent authorities in the 
various countries: 

American. English. German. French. 

(Babcock.) (Oliver.) (Fleischmann.) (Cornevin.) 

Water .... 87.17 87.60 87.75 87.75 

Fat 3.69 3.25 3.40 3.30 

Casein .... 3.02 3.40 2.80 3.00 

Albumin ... .53 .45 .70 

Sugar 4.88 4.55 4.60 4,80 

Ash. ..... .71 .75 .75 .75 

100.00 100.00 100.00 99.60 

The following, from Koenig, shows the range of 
variation of the several constituents in nearly 800 
analyses collected from all parts of the world: 

Maximum. Minimum. 

Water 90.69 80.32 

Fat ... 6.47 1.67 

Casein 4.23 1.79 

Albumin 1.44 .25 

Sugar 6.03 2.11 

Ash 1.21 .35 

While the range of variation shown above is 
considerable, some of the constituents, notably the 
fat, may show even greater ranges in milk secreted 
by normal, healthy cows. It is probable that the 
minimum of Koenig is seldom exceeded, but as high 
as 10 per cent of fat has been found in the milk 
of single cows giving a very small quantity. Bab- 
cock states that no analysis showing more than 9 

B 



18 Milk and Its Products 

per cent of fat is recorded from any cow giving as 
much as 15 pounds of milk per day. Any analysis 
above 7 per cent is extremely rare, and should be 
regarded with suspicion unless well authenticated. 
The mixed milk of herds seldom falls below 3 per 
cent of fat and rarely rises above 5.5 per cent. 

Colostrum. — The first milk secreted by the animal 
after parturition is quite distinct in composition and 
physical properties from that produced after the 
secretion has become well established. Such milk 
is called colostrum, and is ordinarily considered 
unfit for consumption or manufacture. Colostrum 
differs from normal milk chiefly in its less proportion 
of water and sugar, in the much greater proportion 
of albumin and ash, in the extremely variable amount 
of fat, and in the presence of small organized bodies 
known as colostrum corpuscles, which are probably 
debris of the cell structure of the gland. The follow- 
ing analyses from Richmond after Vaudin show the 
extremely variable composition of colostrum: 

No. 1. No. g. 

Water 72.39 75.51 

Fat 1.30 6.82 - 

Sugar 1.52 2.17 

Proteids (casein, albumin, etc.) 23.70 14.91 

Ash 1.09 1.09 

100.00 100.00 

The percentage of albumin in colostrum is so 
great that it will cause the whole mass of milk to 
thicken upon boiling, and this is ordinarily consid- 
ered a sufficient test for determining the suitability 
of the milk for consumption or manufacture. With- 



Specific Gravity of Milk ^_^ 19 

in four or five days after calving, the miik loses its 
eoiostrum character and takes on its normal condi- 
tion. This change is a gradual and progressive one, 
and is more or less dependent upon the physical 
condition of the animal. When the cow is feverish, 
or when there is local inflammation in the udder, 
the colostrum character of the milk is retained 
for a longer period than otherwise. The amount 
of coloring matter present is also considerably 
greater in colostrum than in normal milk, and the 
percentage of fat varies very widely. Usually the 
percentage of fat is less in the colostrum than in 
the normal milk from the same cow, although oc- 
casions are not infrequent where more fat is found 
in the milk immediately after calving than at any 
other time in the whole period of lactation. 

Specific gravity of milk. — Some of the solids .of 
milk are heavier than water and some of them lighter, 
milk as a whole having a specific gravity somewhat 
greater than water. The variation in the specific 
gravity is considerable, the range usually given being 
from 1.029 to 1.035 at 60° F., the average being 
about 1.032. In general, the effect of an increase 
in the solids of the milk is to increase its specific 
gravity, though in milk extremely rich in fats (6 
per cent or above) the specific gravity is lessened. 
Formerly, more than at present, it was the custom 
to estimate the quality of the milk by determining 
its specific gravity, but as soon as it became known 
that the specific gravity depended not so much upon 
the amount as upon the character of the solids, a 



20 Milk and Its Products 

determination of the specific gravity became of little 
value. Unscrupulous dairymen soon learned that 
water could be added to milk and fat or cream 
taken from it in such proportions that the specific 
gravity would remain the same as that of normal 
milk. 

The fats. — The fat of milk, or butter fat, as it 
is often called, is a mixture of a considerable number 
of separate and distinct fats, no less than six or 
eight being normal to milk, and a considerable fur- 
ther number may be present under various conditions. 
The fats in milk are of two kinds, volatile and non- 
volatile. To the former class belong the various 
normal essential oils that give to milk and butter 
their characteristic odors and flavors, and in addition 
to these normal fats there may be a large number 
of volatile oils that are present in the food of the 
cow, and that impart to the milk the characteristic 
flavors of such foods. 

The volatile fats.— The volatile fats make up only 
a small part of the total milk fat ; in general, prob- 
ably about 15 per cent of the whole. The chief 
normal volatile fats are butyrin, caprin, caproin, 
caprilin and laurin. Of these, butyrin is in much 
the largest proportion and of much the greatest im- 
portance. It is the chief volatile fat of milk and 
butter, and co it are due in large part the character- 
istic flavors and aromas of milk and butter. Butyrin 
readily decomposes, forming butyric acid, which is the 
chief element in the rancid or " frowy " taste that 
butter acquires upon long standing. 



Effect of Strong -flavored Foods 21 

The volatile fats that are derived directly from 
the food may give either desirable or undesirable 
.flavors to the milk. Thus we esteem the character- 
istic flavors due to the grasses, clover and like fodder ; 
on the other hand, the stronger flavors of garlic, 
onions, turnips, cabbage, etc., give to the milk an 
undesirable character. 

The presence of these undesirable flavors in milk 
is often a source of a good deal of annoyance, but 
with proper precautions the bad results coming from 
them may be greatly lessened, and in many cases 
entirely obviated. Since all of these flavoring oils are 
volatile, they easily pass through all the tissues of 
the animal, and in a comparatively short time pass 
off through the various excretorj^ channels. We shall 
find them present in the greatest amount not only 
in the milk, but in all the tissues of the animal, 
during the time that the fodder containing them is 
undergoing digestion, and by the time the digestion 
is completed the volatile products will have almost 
entirely passed away. If, therefore, sufficient care 
is taken to so time the feeding and milking that the 
milk shall be drawn not less than ten or twelve 
hours after the undesirable fodder has been eaten, 
there will be slight danger of contamination of the 
milk by it. Whereas, if milking occurs within three 
or four hours after feeding, the milk will be 
strongly impregnated with the undesirable flavor. 
Taking advantage of this, and feeding cows immedi- 
ately before or immediately after milking, dairymen 
are often enabled to feed large quantities of turnips. 



22 Milk and Its Products 

and even onions, without danger of contamination of 
the milk. The presence of wild garlic and wild 
onions in pastures is a source of bad flavor in the 
milk in a considerable portion of the country. Where 
this is the case it is, of course, more difficult to 
overcome the bad flavor ; but by allowing the cows 
to pasture for a comparatively short time only im- 
mediately after milking, and keeping them up and 
giving them some dry food for three or four hours 
before milking, there will be a great deal less an- 
noyance from this source. 

The non-volatile fats. — The non-volatile fats make 
up about 85 per cent of the whole amount of fat, 
and consist of a more or less uncertain and variable 
mixture of several fats, of which olein and palmitin 
make up the chief part. They are glycerides of the 
corresponding fatty acids— oleic, palmitic, stearic, myr- 
istic, etc., and differ from one another chiefly in 
their hardness or melting point. Olein is liquid at 
ordinary temperatures ; palmitin and the others are 
solid. Olein melts at about 41° F., the hard fats at 
various temperatures from 130° to 150° F. The 
mixture of the whole, as we find them in ordinary 
butter, melts at from 92° to 96° F. The hardness 
or softness of different butters, depending largely 
upon varying proportions of olein. Considerable doubt 
exists as to the relative proportions of the various 
fats and fatty acids. Browne* gives the following 
percentages of volatile and non- volatile fatty acids: 

*Jour. Am. Chem. Soe. 21, 823. 



The Non- volatile Fats 23 

Oleic 33.95 

Palmitic 40.51 

Myristic , 10.44 

Stearic 1.91 

Dioxystearic 1.04 

Butyric .- 6.23 

Laurie 2.73 

Caproie -2.32 

Caprylic . 53 

Capric 34 

100.00 

It is asserted that the coloring matter of the 
fat is most intimately associated with the palmitin. 
The fat exists in the milk in the form of an emul- 
sion of extremely small globules, varying in size 
from TsVo" to 2^oTo of an inch in diameter. These 
globules are not surrounded by pellicles, or so- 
called skins, as was formerly thought, but main- 
tain their form by reason of the surface tension of 
the liquid fat, and also to some extent because of 
a layer of more or less condensed casein that im- 
mediately surrounds them. The permanency of the 
emulsion is further increased by the viscous nature 
of the milk serum, due to the presence of sugar 
and other solids in solution. 

The albuminoids. — The casein is the chief albu- 
minoid of milk, although there is always present a 
small amount of albumin, and, according to some 
authorities, of fibrin. Casein is of prime impor- 
tance in the manufacture of cheese, and it is the 
chief constituent that goes to form tissue when milk 
is used as a food. 

There is a good deal of doubt as to the form 



24 MWk and Its Products 

in which the casein exists. Formerly it was sup- 
posed that the casein is in solution. This idea 
was brought about by the fact that it is impossible 
to filter the casein from the milk, even though it 
is passed through several thicknesses of fine paper. 
Later, though, it was found that when milk is 
passed through a fine porcelain filter a certain part 
is removed, and it was then supposed that there 
were two forms of casein, one of which was in 
solution and the other in suspension in very fine 
particles of a colloidal or gummy character. Still 
later investigations have shown that in all proba- 
bility a large part of the casein is in this extremely 
fine colloidal state. When milk is subjected to 
the action of weak organic or mineral acids, to 
rennet or to certain vegetable substances, the casein 
is precipitated in a flocculent mass. Casein is not 
acted upon by heat. The albumin of the milk is 
in all respects similar to blood albumin. It is 
rendered insoluble by a heat of about 180° F., but 
it is not acted upon by weak acids or rennet, and 
in this way it is chiefly distinguished from the 
casein. The fibrin of milk, if present, is in ex- 
tremely minute quantities. It is supposed to be 
the same as blood fibrin, and coagulates upon ex- 
posure to the air, but is never present in sufficient 
quantity tO form a clot, as in the case of blood. 
Its coagulation is hindered by a reduction of tem- 
perature, and it has been supposed that when it does 
coagulate it forms a sort of network of threads 
through the mass of milk. 



Milk Sugar and Ash 25 

The sugar. — Milk sugar, otherwise called lactose, 
exists in solution in the milk serum. It has the 
same chemical composition as cane sugar : that is, 
C12H22O11 + H2O . It crystallizes with considerable 
difficulty, and has very much less sweetening power 
than ordinary sugar. Under the influence of vari- 
ous ferments it readily undergoes decomposition, 
each molecule of sugar breaking up into four mol- 
ecules of lactic acid. This change begins in the 
milk almost immediately after it is drawn, and con- 
tinues until from .8 to 1 per cent of lactic acid 
is formed. The presence of lactic acid in this 
amount acts as a check upon the growth of the 
ferments, and prevents the further formation of 
lactic acid, unless the acid is neutralized with an 
alkali, when the fermentation proceeds as before. 
Milk sugar does not readily undergo alcoholic fer- 
mentation, but by the action of yeast and some 
other ferments the lactose is "inverted," or changed 
to dextrose and a peculiar substance known as ga- 
lactose, and these readily change to alcohol undei 
the influence of the proper ferments. 

The ash. — The ash is the smallest and least 
variable constituent of the milk. It is composed 
chiefly of the phosphates of lime and potash, the 
chlorides of potash and soda, with small amounts 
of phosphate of iron and magnesia. Most of the 
salts are in solution. It seems probable that at 
least a part of the phosphate of lime is ordinarily 
in insoluble form, suspended in the milk in very 
fine particles in connection with the casein. The 



26 MilJc and Its Products 

chloride of potash is largely in excess of the 
chloride of soda. This is exactly opposite to the 
proportions of these two salts in the blood. 

Other constituents. — Besides the constituents enu- 
merated above, several other compounds are more or 
less * normally present in milk in minute quan- 
tities. 

A small amount of citric acid is said to be a 
normal constituent of milk. 

A peculiar substance called lactochrome is also 
a normal constituent of milk, and gives to it its 
characteristic color. This has been already men- 
tioned in connection with the palmitin. The amount 
of lactochrome present varies under many condi- 
tions, notably the breed of the animal and the 
character of the food. Whatever other conditions 
may prevail, the milk is always of a higher color 
w^here the animals are fed on fresh green forage. 
This has led to the idea that the color of the 
milk is in some way connected with the condition 
of the chlorophyl or green coloring matter of the 
plant. Careno* has suggested that as the chloro- 
phyl undergoes a change when the plant is dried, 
the digestive organs of the animal will have a 
different effect upon it, and so account for the 
difference in color in the milk. 

An albuminoid called lactoprotein has also been 
described in milk. 

Urea to the extent of .001 of 1 per cent may 
also be regarded as a normal constituent of milk. 

* Milch Zeitung, vol. xxiv. 387. 



Variations in Quality 27 

Variations in quality of milk. — We have already 
seen that the amount of milk secreted may vary 
greatly under the influence of a large number of 
varying conditions. So, too, we find that there 
are a large number of conditions that affect the 
quality of the milk, meaning thereby the relative 
proportion of the various constituents, and particu- 
larly the proportion of fat to other constituents. 
Some of these changes are regular and progressive 
during the period of lactation. Others are due to 
definite causes, and still others occur from time to 
time to which we have as yet been unable to 
ascribe any definite cause. After about the third 
or fourth week of lactation the percentage of fat 
in the milk remains nearly constant until the seventh 
or eighth month, or until the quantity of milk begins 
to rapidly diminish ; but while the percentage of fat 
does not markedly change, the character of the fat 
undergoes several marked and characteristic changes. 
The butter globules are largest in size early in the 
period of lactation, and constantly diminish as lac- 
tation progresses, at the same time that they in- 
crease in number, so that the total amount of fat 
is not greatly changed. Early in the period of lac- 
tation there is a larger proportion of olein. In 
some cases it may amount to 50 per cent of the 
total fat. As the lactation progresses the propor- 
tion of olein decreases and stearin and palmitin in- 
creases, until the proportion of olein may fall as low 
as 20 per cent. This change is more marked when 
the animal changes from fresh to dry food, as the 



28 Milk and lis Products 

period of lactation progresses. The hardeuing of 
the fat and the shrinking in the size of the glob- 
ules are also more marked when the animal again 
becomes pregnant. In the case of cows that are 
milked for a prolonged period, as sometimes hap- 
pens with farrow and spayed cows, the milk often 
becomes abnormally rich, not only in fat, but in 
casein ; and in such cases the fat is usually made 
up of very minute globules. 

It is usually observed that milks drawn at 
night and morning differ quite widely in the per- 
centage of fat. This is not because there is any 
difference in the milk secreted by night or by day, 
although when cows lie still there is a larger , per- 
centage of water and a correspondingly less per- 
centage of solids in the milk. The difference in 
the milk drawn at morning and evening is due to 
the unequal time that elapses between the periods. 
In general, the milk is richest in fat that is drawn 
after the shortest period, and this has been shown 
to be the case where cows have been milked three 
or four and even five times per day. It is, 
however, not an invariable rule that the milk is 
richest succeeding the shortest period. Not infre- 
quently it has been found that the milk is richer 
after the longer period. In a series of observa- 
tions made by the writer upon 12 cows, ex- 
tending over 221 days, in 72 cases the percentage 
of fat was greater in the morning ; in 114 cases 
it was greater in the evening, and in 35 cases 
there was a difference of .1 of 1 per cent or less 



First and Last Milk Brawn 29 

between the morning and the evening milk. In this 
instance the period from evening to morning was 
abont two honrs longer. The amount of variation 
that may occur between the morning and evening milk 
is often very considerable. In the great majority 
of cases it is not more than .5 of 1 per cent, 
but variations so great as 2 or 2.5 per cent be- 
tween the milk of one morning and that of the 
preceding or following evening have frequently 
been noticed. It is probable that a part of this 
variation may be explained by the action of the 
lymphatics of the udder in reabsorbing a part of 
the fat when the milk remains for a long time 
in the vessels of the udder. 

There is also a considerable variation in the 
milk from day to day. This is usually not so 
great as between the morning and evening milking, 
but it not infrequently amounts to 1 per cent. 
Such daily variations may be ascribed to chauges 
in the climate or other environment of the cows, — 
the eifect of storms, the effect of change of food, 
the effect of slight indispositions, etc.; but there 
are numerous conditions not usually or readily 
recognized by the owner that affect the composition 
of the milk. It has been noted in many instances 
that the normal effect of a slight febrile condition 
of the animal is to largely increase the percentage 
of fat and albumin. If the febrile condition con- 
tinues, and particularly if it grows more severe, 
the fat then falls as quickly as it had risen, and 
to a correspondingly lower point. 



30 Milk and Its Products 

The variation in the percentage of fat in the 
milk first and last drawn is very great. The first 
milk drawn is much the poorer in fat. Differ- 
ences so wide as 1 and 10 per cent of fat in 
the first and last few pints have not infrequently 
been noticed. This is due in large measure to the 
fact that the larger globules of fat,' being of 
nearly the same size as the smaller milk ducts, 
pass along these vessels less readily than the more 
fluid portions of the milk, and are only drawn 
out with the last milk drawn. The milk first 
drawn has been in the milk cisterns and larger 
vessels for a considerable period of time, and so 
has been subject to the reabsorptive action of, the 
lymphatics for a longer time, which also would 
tend to make it poorer in fat. 

The food also has a considerable influence upon 
the quality of the milk, although the quantity of 
the milk is more easily affected by changes in the 
amount and character of the food than is quality. 
In fact, with cows kept under favorable conditions, 
with an abundant supply of food, it is hardly 
possible to increase the proportion of fat to other 
solids by a change in the food. On the other hand, 
while the amount of the various constituents of 
the milk is not easily affected by the food, the 
quality of the constituents themselves may be 
considerably influenced, notably in the case of the 
fat. Certain foods have a marked influence upon 
the character of the milk fat. Thus linseed meal, 
gluten meal and certain other foods make a soft, 



Relation of Fat to Casein 31 

oily fat, while cotton -seed meal, the seeds of the 
^'arious legumes and wheat bran make a hard fat. 
Constituents other than the fat are not so readily 
affected in this way. 

Of the constituents of milk, the ash and the 
sugar are the least variable, the fat and albumin 
the most variable, while the casein usually bears a 
nearly constant ratio to the fat. The percentage 
of water also varies considerably. The causes of 
the variation of the fat have already been noticed. 
The proportion of albumin is very largely in- 
fluenced by the physical condition of the cow, and 
it has been shown, notably by Van Slyke (see 
Chapter XIII.), that with what may be called normal 
milk, — that is, milk containing from 3 to 4.5 per 
cent of fat, — the proportion of casein rises or falls 
in almost exact ratio with the fat, but when the 
fat rises above this point the casein does not 
follow in the same proportion. 

A notion is prevalent that the percentage of fat 
in the milk is also affected by the age of the cow ; 
that during the first and second periods of lactation 
the young cow usually gives milk poorer in fat 
than when she is mature. During the years of 
greatest vigor the percentage of fat is supposed to 
be fairly uniform ; but in cows of advanced age it 
may sometimes again fall to a low point. Recently 
some records have been published* that go to show 
that the age of the cow has little, if any, influence 

*Holstein. Friesian Herd Book, vols. 13, 14, 15, 16, 17. Cornell University 
Agr. Expt. Station, Bulletin No. 169. 



32 



Milk and Its Products 



ou the percentage of fat in the milk. In the one 
case the observations were made upon a large num- 
ber of cows of all ages, for a week at a time, com- 
paratively early in the period of lactation. In the 
other the observations were made upon a single herd 
extending over several years, and the percentages of 
fat are the average for the whole period of lactation 
The percentages of fat for the different ages are as 
follows : 



" 


Official" 


■weekly tests of 


Observations 


on Cornell 




Holstein-Friesian cows. 


University herd, 1891-8. 




No. 


Average 


No. 


Average 




of Cows. 


per cent fat. 


of Cows, per cent fat. 


2-year-olds .... 


147 


3.29 


25 


3.71 


3-year-olds .... 


81 


3.31 


25 


3.71 


4-year-olds . . 


59 


3.41 


18 


3.68 


5-year-olds .... 


37 


3.42 


12 


3.60 


6-year-olds ..... 


36 


3.34 


8 


3.49 


7-year-olds .... 


22 


3.25 


5 


3.68 


8-year-olds . . . 
9-year-olds . . 


14 
10 


3.401 
3.37 J 


4 


3.89 


10-year-olds .... 


9 


3.83 






11- and 12-year-olds' 


4 


3.57 







The breed of the cow also influences very largely 
the percentage of fat in the milk. Cows of certain 
breeds normally give milk much richer in fat than 
others. 

The following, compiled from a large number 
of analyses made at various American Agricultural 
Experiment Stations, will give a general idea of 
the average composition of the milk of the more 
common breeds, so far as it relates to total solids 
and fat: 



Milk of Differ ent Breeds 33 

Solids. Fat. 

Jersey « 14.70 5.35 

Guernsey , . 14.71 5.16 

Devon 14.50 4.60 

Shorthorn - 13.38 4.05 

Ayrshire. 12.61 3.66 

Holstein-Friesian 11.85 3.42 



The variation due to breed includes not only the 
amount of fat, and the color and melting point of 
the fat, but the size of the milk globules. In some 
breeds the milk globules are uniformly large, in 
others extremely small, and in still others both large 
and small globules are found. 

While there is a distinct difference in the qual- 
ity of the milk of the different breeds, the dif- 
ferent individuals in the breed also vary largely in 
the quality of the milk. The difference in the 
percentage of fat in milk from different cows of 
the same breed is quite as great as the average 
differences between the breeds ; that is to say, the 
difference between the highest and lowest percent- 
age of fat in the milk of different individuals of 
the same breed is as great as the difference be- 
tween the average percentage of fat in the breeds 
giving the richest and poorest milk. 

The variations due to the breed of the' animal 
extend, of course, in some measure to the butter 
made from the milk. This is particularly true of 
the color and hardness of the fat. But while 
these differences are sufficient in amount to be 
characteristic, they scarcely affect the quality of 
the butter as a whole. While some partisans may 



34 Milk and Its Products 

contend that the butter made by their favorite breed 
is of superior quality, it would be well-nigh impos- 
sible, in any given case, by an examination of the 
butter, to say from what breed of cows it had 
been made. Butter of the very best quality in tex- 
ture, color and flavor may be made from the milk 
of any breed of cows. 



CHAPTER III 

THE PRODUCTION OF MILK— DAIRY CATTLE 

The prosperity of any dairy industry is very largely 
dependent upon the economic production of the raw 
material, namely, milk. Unless milk is produced at 
a profit to the farmer or dairyman, it is impossible 
to establish a permanently successful manufacturing 
industry upon it. 

While it is without the scope of this work to dis- 
cuss all the phases of economical milk production, 
every manufacturer of milk products should have at 
least some understanding of the various conditions 
which so closely underlie the prosperitj^ of the industry. 

Milk a maternal function. — As has been mentioned 
in a preceding chapter, milk is produced as a part of 
the maternal function of the females of the class mam- 
malia, but while maternity is the efficient stimulus to 
milk production, the commercial production of milk in 
the highly civilized and specialized animal known as 
the dairy cow, is influenced to such a degree by so 
many other conditions that we are in danger of over- 
looking the part that maternity plays in milk secretion. 

Wild animals, and, as a matter of fact, practically 
all domesticated animals, secrete milk solely to supply 
the young with food until such time as it is able to 

(35) , 



36 Milk and Its Products 

secure and digest food of the saine kind and nature 
as its parents. Tlie function of milk secretion in all 
such animals, then, begins when the young is born, 
increases rapidly for a few days or weeks, as the 
developing infant requires more food, and then grad- 
ually diminishes as the infant with continued growth 
begins to seek its natural and permanent food, and 
finally entirely ceases when the young is able to get 
its own subsistence, at the age of a few weeks in the 
case of most small animals, and in no event longer 
than a few months even with the largest forms. 

The cow the only commercial milk producer. — His- 
tory does not tell us how the cow came to be devel- 
oped as the preeminent producer of milk for man's 
use. In all probability the milk of the goat and the 
ass was used by man before that of the cow. But 
in her development the cow has shown herself to be 
so much more adaptable to the commercial production 
of milk as to have distanced all other animals in this 
respect. There is no historical evidence that leads 
one to believe that in her wild state the cow had any 
greater tendency to give milk in excess of the demands 
of her offspring or for longer periods of time than 
many other animals. The domestication of the cow 
has resulted in developing an animal in which the 
capacity for secretion has been multiplied many times, 
and the duration of secretion has been made practi- 
cally continuous. As a liberal estimate, a vigorous 
calf would not need more than 20 pounds of milk per 
day for the first four months of its life, or 2,400 
pounds of milk, and this, or less, would be all that a 



The Lactation Period ' 37 

normal wild or semi -wild cow would be likely to pro- 
duce in a year. Numerous cows have lived that have 
produced more than ten times this amount, or 24,000 
pounds of milk in a year, the largest amount on record 
being 30,318i^ pounds of milk given by the Holstein 
cow, Pietertje 2d, in 1888. 

Factors in the prodtiction of milk.— The chief fac- 
tors on which the production of milk depends are: 
(1) Maternity, or the period of lactation; (2) the 
inherent capacity of the cow, which in general is 
largely determined bj" her breed and hereditary char- 
acteristics, but always to a greater or less extent inde- 
pendent of them; (3) the amount and character of 
the food supply. 

The lactation period. — As has already been stated, 
the domesticated cow has been developed so that the 
production of milk is practically continuous. Never- 
theless, pregnancy and parturition play a very impor- 
tant part in the production of milk. While cows 
may, and often do, secrete milk continuously for two, 
three or four years without producing a calf, on the 
other hand, the birth of a calf serves td stimulate 
the secretion of milk to such an extent that prac- 
tically all dairymen are agreed that milk is produced 
under the most favorable conditions when the cow 
produces a calf at regular intervals each year, and 
this regardless of the value of the calf when born. 
It is also found that a period of rest before par- 
turition is essential to the largest production of milk 
after the calf is born; that is to say, the cow will 
secrete more milk in a year if she goes dry for two 



38 Milk and Its Products 

to four weeks before calving, than though she is 
milked right up to calving, as often may be done. 
So far as can be ascertained, the good effect of this 
dry period is very largely physiological, the secreting 
glands in the udder are stimulated to greater activity 
by reason of having been inactive for a short space. 
While dairymen often speak of this period of dryness 
as a resting period, its good effect is probably not 
so much due to the resting of the general vital 
powers of the animal as to the physiological con- 
dition of the udder itself. 

In most cows when the period of pregnancy has 
reached about the seventh month, there is a marked 
diminution in the flow of milk, and the udder shrinks 
rapidly in size. If now regular milking ceases, the 
cow soon "dries up," the udder shrinks away and 
becomes flaccid and empty, except for a small amount 
of watery saline fluid. About two weeks before par- 
turition, the udder begins to take on renewed activity. 
It increases rapidly in size, but remains soft and spongy 
under normal conditions until a very short time 
before calving. If the cow is very fat, if she is 
fed heavily on stimulating, heating foods, or if there 
are other conditions that tend to plethora of the body, 
the swelling of the udder may be unduly large, take 
on an inflammatory character, and the udder becomes 
caked. In cows of a heavy milking habit this often 
is a very serious condition, and may even destroy 
the usefulness of the animal, or at least one or more 
quarters of the udder. It is obviated by taking care 
that the animal is fed only loosening and cooling 



Duration of Flow ' 39 

foods, and that the bowels are kept free and open. 
Ordinarily, milk does not appear in the ' udder more 
than a few hours before parturition. It is usually 
abundant as soon as parturition takes place, and its 
regular and complete removal, having due regard for 
the condition of the animal, is a very efficient means 
of establishing a large flow. And if there are no 
troubles attending parturition and the establishment 
of the milk flow, the animal may be fed liberally as 
soon as the milk has lost its colostrum character, 
and under favorable conditions of health, food and 
treatment, the flow of milk will increase for two to 
four weeks after the calf is dropped, at which time 
it ordinarily has reached its maximum. From this 
time, favorable conditions continuing, the flow of 
milk may be kept very nearly constant for several 
months. If the cow is to produce a calf regularly 
.each year, she will naturally be bred about three 
months after calving. It is not at all uncommon for 
cows to show, a quite marked diminution in the milk 
flow immediately after service, but the best cows will 
continue to yield milk with very little diminution 
until the foetus begins to grow and make demands 
upon the mother at the fifth or sixth month of preg- 
nancy. From this time until the seventh month there 
will be a regular and quite rapid diminution in the 
flow until the tendency to go dry is strong, as has 
already been said, at about the seventh month. 

The operation of milMng. — The production of milk 
is also dependent to a considerable extent upon the 
operation of milking. A skilful milker will get ap- 



40 Milh and Its Products 

preciably more milk from a cow, or lot of cows, in 
the course of a season than an unskilful one. The 
milk should be drawn from the cow as rapidly, as 
quietly, and as easily as possible. It goes without 
saying that it should also be completely removed. 
Downward stroking manipulations of the udder are 
of some use in removing the very last portions, but 
the method advocated by Hegelund* for this purpose 
some years ago has not been generally adopted. 
Eegularity in the time of milking is also an impor- 
tant factor in securing large amounts, more particu- 
larly in keeping up the milk flow, and preventing 
rapid drying off toward the close of lactation. The 
interval between milkings also affects the amount pro- 
duced. Up to a certain limit the amount of milk 
produced will be increased by shortening the milking 
period, and it is hy no means infrequent to milk cows 
three or four times daily, at intervals of eight or six 
hours, and practically all large records of production 
are made under such treatment. When the interval 
is shortened to less than six hours, the disturbance 
to the animal checks the milk flow quite as much as 
the increased frequency of removal tends to increase 
it, and no advantage has as yet been gained by 
milking cows oftener than four times a day. It is 
difficult to make an exact standard with respect to 
the relation between frequency of milking and amount 
of milk secured, but it may be said in general that the 
amount of milk will be increased if the cow is milked 
as often as her udder becomes moderately distended. 

*Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 213. 



Bad Milking Habits 41 

Cows easily contract habits with respect to milk- 
ing, and often these habits are very disagreeable and 
amount to a good deal of loss. Many cows will not 
"give down" the milk unless they are fed at, or just 
before, the time of milking. Occasional cows will 
yield very much more milk for a favorite milker than 
for a stranger. For this reason it is a common 
practice, particularly in small herds, that each milker 
should milk the same cows each day. In large herds, 
however, where milkers necessarily have to be 
changed frequently, pains are taken to prevent the 
contraction of any such habits, and the cows are 
milked indiscriminately, and so have no chance to 
form an attachment for any particular milker. It is 
a common opinion among dairymen that milking 
habits are more easily formed during the first lacta- 
tion of the heifer, and care is taken that the heifers 
be milked as well as possible, and that their lactation 
period be prolonged as closely as possible up to the 
time of dropping the second calf. There is no dis- 
advantage in such practice, even if it often fails to 
yield tangible results. Mechanical milking machines, 
that have been the subject of so much and so long 
continued experiment, have now reached practical 
form, and are being successfully introduced in many 
large dairies. 

The individual capacity of the cow. — No single fact 
in milk production is of more importance, so far as 
profit and loss is concerned, than that the cow is a 
law unto herself in respect to the amount of milk 
that she can be made to give. Profitable dairying 



42 Milk and Its Products 

depends upon distinguishing between productive and 
non-productive cows, and there is no one thing that 
will secure greater improvement to a dairyman than 
weeding out the unprofitable cows in the dairy, and 
supplying their places with those that are profitable 
producers; at the same time, there is no factor more 
generally neglected by the dairymen of the United 
States than this. It therefore becomes a matter of 
some importance that the dairyman should be skilled 
in distinguishing between productive and unproduc- 
tive cows. 

Relation of form to capacity. — In the development 
of the dairy cow, and particularly in the formation 
of the various dairy breeds, it has been noticed that 
the capacity to produce milk is to a certain extent 
correlated with certain well marked and easily recog- 
nized characteristics of form. This has led to the 
distinction between the so called dairy and beef types 
of animals. The chief characteristic of the dairy 
form is the wedge shape ; that is, the larger develop- 
ment of the hind quarters, and the corresponding less 
development of the fore quarters, so that if the cow 
is viewed from the front or side, there is a distinctly 
wedge-shaped appearance, with the apex of the wedge 
toward the head. This is contrasted with the charac- 
teristic rectangular shape of the beef animal. In 
connection with the wedge shape, a large degree of 
angularity and lack of muscular development, particu- 
larly along the ribs and loins and on the shoulders 
and thighs, is quite as characteristic of the dairy 
animal as the wedge shape itself. In addition it is, 



Use of Score Cards 43 

of course, essential that the cow, in order to be a 
profitable milk producer, must have a large, capacious 
udder, full of secreting follicles, and, as the udder is 
an external organ, its size and capacity are quite 
readily and easily determined by examination. Capa- 
cious digestive and respiratory organs are also im- 
portant, as indicating activity of the vital functions 
of the animal, and strong, vigorous constitutional 
powers. So useful are these external characters 
known to be as indicating capacity for secretion that 
dairymen find it worth while to train themselves in 
recognizing these indications and comparing cows one 
with another with respect to their external indica- 
tions for capacity for milk secretion, and a large 
amount of instruction in schools and colleges is given 
along these lines. Training in these matters is facili- 
tated by the use of score cards or scales of points, 
which enumerate and describe the general external 
characteristics of the cow, and assign numerical 
values to the different characters in proportion to 
their assumed relative importance. Most breeders' 
associations, and very manj^ colleges, have formulated 
and used such scales of points. They naturally vary 
more or less, according to the ideas of the persons 
who formulate them. A sample card is shown on the 
next page. The chief value of a score card is to 
teach the novice to make a careful examination of 
every part. His final judgment, however, should be 
based on the individual as a whole, and this is best 
trained by practice in comparing individuals side 
bv side. 



44 



Milk and Its Products 



ScoKE Card for Dairy Cattle 



Scale of Points — Cow 



General Appearance — 

Weight. — Estimated pounds; actual 

Form. — Wedge-shaped, as viewed from front, side and top. . . 

Form. — Spare, as indicated by prominent joints and clean 
bone and lack of muscular development along ribs ana 
loins 

Quality. — Hair fine, soft; skin pliable, loose, medium thick- 
ness; secretion yellow, abundant 

Constitution. — Vigorous, as indicated by alert expression, 
evidently active vital functions, and general healthy 
appearance 



Head and Neck — 

Muzzle.— Clean cut; mouth large; nostrils large 

Eyes. — Large, bright 

Face. — Lean, long; quiet expression 

Forehead. — Broad, slightly dished 

Ears. — Medium size; fine texture 

Neck. — Fine, medium length; throat clean; light dewlap.. 

Fore- and Hind-Quarters — 

Withers. — Lean, thin. Shoulders. — Angular, not fleshy 
Hips. — Far apart; not lower than spine. . 
Rump. — Long, wide, comparatively level. 

Thurls. — High, wide apart 

Thighs. — Thin, long 

Legs. — Straight, short; shank fine 



Body — 

Chest. — Deep; with arge girth and broad on floor of chest; 
well-sprung ribs . . 

Abdomen. — Large, deep; indicative of capacity; well sup- 
ported 

Back. — Lean, straight, chine open. Tail. — Long, slim, with 
fine switch , 

Loin. — Broad ; 



Milk-secreting Organs — 

Udder. — Large, long, attached high and full behind; extend- 
ing far in front and full; quarters even 

Udder. — Capacious, flexible, with loose, pliable skin covered 
with short, fine hair 

Teats. — Convenient size, evenly placed 

Milk Veins. — Large, tortuous, long, branching, with large 
milk wells. Escutcheon. — Spreading over thighs, ex- 
tending high and wide 



Total 





Points 


o 


Deficient 


rn 


to *• 










% 
^ 


II 


a 


01 


f?» 


a3"3 


CL, 


mH 


^O 



100 



Animal Date 

Scored by Total Score. 



Value of Records 45 

Through natural aptitude, through careful and 
systematic training, and through constant practice, 
very many persons become expert in the selection of 
cows, and they are able to distinguish with a good 
degree of accuracy Ijetween cows that are large or 
small producers. Yet no matter how much skill may 
be attained along these lines, the fact still remains 
that the external conformation fails to coincide with 
the actual production of the animal in a sufficient 
number of instances so that it is never safe to depend 
entirely upon outward indications in selecting cows. 

Value of records of production. — The statement is 
frequently made, and generally accepted, that there is 
no means of determining the prospective value of a 
cow for the production of milk that can compare 
with a knowledge of what the animal has already 
done as determined by an actual record of production 
in both milk and fat extending through a year or 
a complete period of lactation. This is so well 
recognized that all dairy cow breeders' associations 
are making provision for the segregation of the large 
producing animals of the various breeds into a class 
by themselves, known as the advanced registry or 
register of merit, admission to which is gained only 
by actual production, authenticated by. disinterested 
supervision, and breeders of dairy cattle are expend- 
ing thousands of dollars each year to secure such 
authenticated records of their animals. 

Necessity for keeping records. — If records of pro- 
duction are recognized by breeders ot pure -bred 
animals as an essential factor in the breeding and 



46 Milk and Its Products 

selection of their animals, they are no less useful to 
him who keeps cows merely for the production of 
milk, without regard to the productive value of their 
posterity. It has been demonstrated many times that 
in milk -producing herds where no records are kept 
there will be found anywhere from one quarter to one- 
half, and sometimes more, cows whose total production 
is insufficient to pay for their feed and care, such 
cows being kept at an actual loss to their owner, 
and their deficiencj^ covered up by the higher pro- 
ducing animals. There are many herds, the total 
production of which may be profitable to the owner, 
in which from 10 to 25 per cent of the individual 
cows are kept at a loss. The great reason for this 
condition of affairs is the fact that even a careful 
observer will fail to discriminate between a profitable 
and unprofitable animal, unless an actual record of 
the production of each animal is kept from day to 
day. This is comparatively seldom done, especially 
in herds maintained solely for milk production. But 
such records may be kept at comparatively little 
cost, even when the butter fat is determined, and 
their cost will be returned many times over to the 
owner if he acts upon the results of the records, 
and discards , from his* herd those that are shown to 
be unprofitable. As has already been stated, there is 
no one thing which would result in more increase to 
the prosperitj' of the dairy industry as a whole, and 
more profit to the individual owner, than the general 
keeping of records of production, and the weeding out 
of the unprofitable animals, as shown by such records. 



Food as a Factor 47 

Where the keeping of records of production is 
likely to prove burdensome on individual small owners, 
it has been found that this work may be done to great 
advantage cooperatively, and the success of cow-testing 
associations in many localities attests this fact. 

Food as a factor in milk production. — It is self- 
evident that feed must be an important factor in the 
production of milk, since the solids in milk are pro- 
duced directly from the food. It matters little what 
the conformation or the hereditary powers of the 
animal may be, she cannot produce milk in large 
amounts for long periods of time unless she is 
abundantly supplied with the material from which 
the milk is made, and, in general, that cow is the 
best and most economical that can transform the 
largest amount of food into a corresponding amount 
of milk. The subject of feeding of domestic animals, 
and particularly the dairy cow, has received a great 
deal of study and investigation in this country and 
Europe in the last fifty years, and very notable ad- 
vances have been made with respect to the science 
and art of feeding animals, and a large literature has 
sprung up in regard to this question. This work is 
not intended to be a manual of cattle feeding in any 
sense, so only the most general principles in respect 
to feeding dairy cattle will be touched upon. The 
ideal ration for the dairy cow must be abundant; it 
must be nutritious; it must be palatable; it must be 
succulent; it must provide a sufficient balance be- 
tween the proteid and non-proteid nutrients, and it 
must be cheap. 



48 Milk and Its Products 

A great deal has been said aud written about the 
amount of food that should be given to a cow in 
milk, and various standards have been established. 
These standards are useful to guide the inexperienced 
feeder, the chief difficulty concerning them being 
that one is likely to get the idea that if the standard 
is scientifically established on a proper basis all that 
is necessary to do is to administer the standard 
amount of food to the animal, and a given result will 
be obtained. Such is not the case. Animals vary in 
the amount of food that they are able to use, and 
more particularly in the amount that they can eco- 
nomically turn into product. In respect to the dairy 
cow, three things will happen if she is fed continu- 
ously all the food that she will eat regularly without 
disarranging the digestive organs or going "off feed:'^ 
(1) She will secrete a certain amount of product 
(milk and milk fat), and at the same time gain in 
weight, or will put fat on her body. (2) She will 
make a similar amount of product, but will make no 
gain in weight, some of the food apparently going to 
waste. (3) She will use all of the food consumed 
for the production of milk, and will increase regularly 
in milk secretion as the food is increased up to the 
limit of her capacity to eat and digest. It is needless 
to say that the cows in this latter class are the most 
valuable to their owners, and experience has deter- 
mined that they are more numerous than was formerly 
supposed. 

The ideal ration. — -A liberal and economical ration 
for the best type of dairy cow is all the roughage 



The Ideal Ration 49 

(hay, silage, roots, etc.) she will eat, and one pound 
of grain food (concentrates) for each three to four 
pounds of milk she produces; and in many cases 
this will be found to be just about all she will eat 
regularly without going "off feed." 

A second consideration in an ideal ration is that it 
should be nutritious; that is to say, there should be 
a certain relation between the digestible and indiges- 
tible parts of the food. The cow is a ruminant, and 
the digestive organs of ruminants have been devel- 
oped to use comparatively large amounts of foods, 
relatively small portions of which are digestible. On 
the other hand, it is possible so to combine the ration 
that it will be so bulky that the digestible portion will 
be insufficient to support the animal and provide a 
maximum amount of product. The ration should be 
sufficiently bulky, on the one hand, to fully distend 
the stomach and other digestive organs. At the same 
time, there should be enough digestible material to 
fully meet the requirements of the animal. If, how- 
ever, we go to the other extreme and make the ration 
of too concentrated or easily digested foods, the ani- 
mal will have a superabundance of digestible material 
in too small a bulk to properly distend the digestive 
organs. The most frequent result of this is that the 
appetite becomes cloyed, the digestive organs disar- 
ranged, and the animal goes "off feed." Practical 
experience has shown that a proper balance is reached 
when about two -thirds of the total dry matter of the 
ration is in the form of roughage, and one -third in 
the form of concentrates. 



50 Milk and Its Products 

It goes without saying that a ration cannot be of 
the highest degree of effectiveness if it is not pala- 
table, if the animal does not eat it, not only readily 
but eagerly. The factors of palatability are not well 
understood, nor always easily recognized, and our 
knowledge of them is to a very considerable extent 
empirical, and the result of actual observation and 
experience. About all that can be said in this respect 
is that of two rations or combinations of food similar 
in all other respects, that one will be most effective 
that is most readily eaten by the animal. There are 
certain adventitious aids to palatability, such as salt, 
water or succulence, and freshness. The peculiar char- 
acteristics of certain plants also make them particu- 
larly palatable or unpalatable for certain animals, or 
classes of animals, and in addition there are various 
vegetable aromatics and semi -tonics, and certain inor- 
ganic salts, that are recognized as having a marked 
effect upon the appetite. A continuous use of these 
latter for healthy animals seldom results in distinct 
advantage. The secretion of milk seems to be inti- 
mately connected with the water content of the food. 
Milk itself is a watery substance (ordinarily about 
seven -eighths water), and of course the water, which 
makes up so large a part of it, demands a corres- 
ponding consumption of water by the animal. It 
seems almost necessary that a certain part of this 
water should be regularly incorporated with the food 
or, in other words, it is of great advantage for the 
secretion of milk that at least a part of the food 
should be composed of materials containing large 



The Nutritive Ratio 51 

araounrs of water, like fresh forage, silage, fruits, 
roots, etc. So well is this recognized that many 
dairymen find it economical to provide a regular sup- 
ply of succulent foods for their cows in milk, even 
though the nutrients in such foods cost more than 
similar amounts would in the dry state. 

In all the studies and investigations that have 
been made with respect to the nutrition of domestic 
animals^ no one has received more attention than the 
relation of the proteid, or nitrogenous part of the 
nutrients, to the non- protein part. Disregarding the 
protein supply so far as the maintenance of the 
animal is concerned (and a certain amount of protein, 
as is well known, is requisite to maintain life), 
there are considerable amounts of protein in the 
milk, the most important being the casein and albu- 
men of the milk, which together comprises more than 
3 per cent of the milk or about 25 per cent of the 
milk solids. This protein, of course, must come from 
the protein supply in the food. The problem of ^.fur- 
nishing sufficient protein in dairy foods has been 
greatly simplified by the introduction of certain by- 
product commercial foods that are now abundant on 
the markets, so that it is no longer difficult, nor 
very expensive, to provide a sufficient amount of pro- 
tein, and it is found that it is not necessary to "bal- 
ance" the proteid and non -proteid nutrients so care- 
fully as formerly. This balance is ordinarily ex- 
pressed by the nutritive ratio, and a dairy ration is 
now considered at least fairly satisfactory if the nutri- 
tive ratio falls anvwhere between 1 : 4.5 and 1 : 6.5. 



52 Milk and Its Products 

Last of all, the ideal ration should be cheap, not 
necessarily in the sense of being made up of low 
grade or low cost foods, but from the standpoint of 
furnishing the largest possible amount of digestible 
nutrients at the lowest cost. Home-grown foods 
ordinarily cost the dairyman less than commercial 
foods, and the milk producer will ordinarily feed most 
economically who uses the largest possible amount of 
home-grown foods. On the other hand, commercial 
foods in nearly all markets, if well selected and care- 
fully purchased, may be fed at a profit if the cows 
are well selected and productive. Market fluctuations 
in various localities make it possible for the consumer 
of commercial foods to effect considerable saving in 
his feed bills, and the dairyman can scarcely be called 
an intelligent one that does not keep well-informed 
in regard to local market conditions and prices, with 
respect to commercial foods, and vary his purchases 
accordingly. 

Selection of breed. — The development of the rhilk- 
ing powers of the dairy cow has been the result of 
evolution and selection: So far as is known, all of 
the breeds of dairy cattle have been brought up to 
their present capacity for production by constantly 
selecting the highest producing individuals, and raising 
the offspring from these on both sides; that is to say, 
the selection of the bull from a high -producing cow 
has been considered quite as important as the raising 
of female calves of such cows, in securing improve- 
ment. The importance of a high- producing animal 
has already been discussed. In order to produce such 



Formation of a Dairy Herd 53 

animals, constaut care must be used in the selection 
and breeding. 

In the formation of a dairy herd one of the first 
questions to be considered is the choice of a breed, 
and whether the herd shall be made up of pure -bred or 
grade animals. There are several well-known breeds 
of dairy cattle in the United States, each having dis- 
tinct qualities, and each having strong partizans. 
While, undoubtedly, some breeds are better fitted for 
certain conditions of soil and climate than are others, 
still the matter of the choice of a breed may well be 
left to individual preference. In almost any location 
one may choose a breed for which he has a strong 
liking, either real or fancied, and be assured that he 
can establish with it a successful herd. Jerseys, 
Guernseys, Holsteins, Ayrshires, Swiss, Devons, Red 
Polls, and even Shorthorns, make a varied and fairly 
long list of breeds from which to select. 

Pure hreds and grades. — Whether purely bred or 
grade animals should be selected is a matter upon 
which there may be more difference of opinion. By 
purely bred animals are meant those that are recorded 
in the herd books of their respective breeds. This is 
the narrow, restricted sense of the term "pure bred," 
but it is the one in common use in this country. A 
grade animal is the offspring of a pure -bred sire and 
a common or grade dam. The offspring of a pure- 
bred sire and a common or "scrub" dam, is called a 
half-blood; the offspring of a pure -bred sire and a 
half-blood dam is called a three -quarter -blood; a 
three -quarter -blood in turn bred to a pure -bred sire 



54 Milk and Its Froducts 

will produce a seven -eighths -blood, and so on ad 
infinitum. Since only the offspring of pure -bred 
parents on both sides are eligible to registry in the 
herd books of any of our dairy breeds, it follows that 
no matter how far the process of grading up by the 
use of pure -bred sires on grade females is carried, 
pure breds, in the technical sense, can never be pro- 
duced. Since pure -bred animals are sought after for 
breeding purposes, the offspring of pure -bred animals 
are, therefore, more valuable, and command a higher 
price than do the offspring of grades. Hence, if the 
value of the calves is taken into consideration, a pure- 
bred herd is a more productive one, other things being 
equal, than a grade herd. On the other hand, by the 
grading -up process above referred to, continually 
selecting the cows that are the best producers, it is 
entirely possible, and by no means difficult, to estab- 
lish a herd of grade cows that will equal, in the pro- 
duction of milk, any herd of pure -bred animals. 
Hence, if the main product alone is sought after, a 
grade herd may produce as largely as a pure -bred 
one; but if the by-product in calves is to be taken 
into consideration, a pure -bred herd certainly has an 
advantage over a grade herd of equal productive 
capacity. 

Maintenance of the dairy herd. — :A dairy herd may 
be maintained in two ways: First, by continued pur- 
chase of mature animals to replace those whose period 
of usefulness has passed. There are many conditions 
under which this may be a wise practice. If it is 
desirable to have the whole herd composed of cows 



Maintainmg the Herd 55 

in their full productive capacity; if there is abundant 
opportunity for selection and purchase near at hand; 
if there is a reasonably good market for cows that are 
undesirable, and if one has reasonable skill in select- 
ing, and good ability in bargaining, a herd of high- 
productive capacity may be more easily and more 
cheaply maintained in this way than by attempting to 
raise young animals to replace those that are worn out. 

The other method of maintaining the herd is, of 
course, by raising calves to supply the place of old 
cows that are no longer profitable. Such a herd will 
always contain a considerable number of young ani- 
mals that have not yet reached full development, and, 
therefore, such a herd will seldom equals in average 
production per animal a herd that is maintained wholly 
by purchase. At the same time, a greater degree of 
uniformity of type may be maintained where the ani- 
mals are raised. If land is abundant and cheap, the 
cost of raising a calf, up to the time that she becomes 
a fully developed cow, will be less than that of pur- 
chasing a similar animal outright. Through force of 
circumstances by far the greater number of dairymen 
must rely on raising the calves necessary to maintain 
the herd. This being the case, the ordinary dairyman 
will need to provide himself with the services of a bull 
suitable to produce useful dairy cows. In most cases 
he will need to own this bull, so that the question of 
the selection and care of the breeding bull has an 
important bearing upon the maintenance of the dairy 
herd. 

Selection of the hiU. — It goes without question that 



56 Milk and Its Products 

such a bull should be purely bred. There are still 
far too many immature and ill-bred bulls in use. 
As a matter of convenience", a yearling bull is turned 
with the herd about the first of June, and in the 
course of two or three months, when all, or nearly 
all, of the cows have become pregnant, and he has 
fattened up, he is sold again at a price little, if any, 
below his cost, and the dairyman is without the 
trouble of the care of a bull for several months. If, 
in addition to this, little attention is paid to the 
breeding of the bull, it is easily seen that little, if 
any, improvement in the character of the herd can 
be expected from his offspring. The progeny that a 
bull has already produced, is by far the best index 
of his usefulness that a prospective purchaser can 
have. Cattle do not reach full maturity, in either 
sex, until they are about four or five years old. Con- 
sequently, the best bull to select is a bull not less 
than four years old that has already begot cows of a 
high productive capacity. Such a bull is, of course, 
more difficult to control, and more expensive to keep, 
but he is worth many times the trouble and expense, 
as compared with an immature yearling. 

In the selection of a bull much has been made of 
various so-called milk signs: Rudimentary teats, milk 
veins, escutcheon, etc. While each and all of these 
may be of some value, they are by no means to be set 
against the record that a bull has made in the pro- 
duction of his daughters. Other personal character- 
istics of the bull that indicate vigor of constitution, 
good digestive organs, and vital activities, in general, 



Management of the Bull 57 

are a loose, mellow hide; a bold, bright eye; an active 
gait and disposition. These are of great importance 
as indicating capacity to reproduce similar character- 
istics in his offspring. 

Management of the hull. — The management of the 
bull on a dairy farm is often a matter of a good 
deal of trouble and perplexity. In a herd of ordi- 
nary size a single bull is sufficient, and it is usually 
necessary that he be kept from the herd during the 
greater part of the year. This means that he must 
be kept in solitary confinement. The result of this 
is, too often, that his temper becomes uncertain, and 
his breeding powers impaired from lack of exercise. 
In all cases where it is possible to do so, it is better 
that the bull should run with the herd of cows. 
With a little care this can frequently be done, par- 
ticularly during the summer and fall, when the cows 
are all pregnant in a spring calving herd, and in the 
spring and early summer, when the cows are all 
pregnant in a fall calving herd. 

The powers and temper of a bull may also be safe- 
guarded by giving him exercise on a tread- power, or 
hitched by a long rope or chain to a wire between 
two upright posts, or attached to a pole balanced 
upon a post so that he may move around it. Occa- 
sionally, also, the labor of a bull may be utilized 
upon a tread-power for cutting feed, pumping water, 
or separating milk. Sometimes a particularly handy 
owner will break a bull to work to harness or in a 
cart. It may even be time and labor well spent to 
give a bull walking exercise. A good, vigorous ani- 



58 MilJc and Its Products 

mal, carefully kept, should retain his breeding powers 
up to eight or nine years of age, or even beyond. 

Grading up the herd. — The successful and pro- 
gressive dairyman will not only give his best efforts 
toward securing a herd that will make a satisfactory 
production, but will look to the future, and secure 
still further improvement by breeding from his herd 
succeeding generations that shall be even larger pro- 
ducers than their ancestors. Such a dairyman may, 
if he chooses, secure as the foundation herd pure-bred 
animals that may be depended upon to transmit their 
qualities to their descendants. But with even the 
highest-bred animals there will be the necessity for 
selection, if the original standards of production are 
to be maintained, to say nothing of being increased. 
On the other hand, the large majority of dairymen 
seeking to improve their herds must depend, more or 
less, upon the individual animals they have already 
on hand as the basis from which to start the im- 
provement. In either case, careful selection must be 
practiced, and a knowledge of at least the elementary 
principles of selection is necessary for progress along 
this line. It is proposed, then, briefly to indicate the 
lines along which an attempt to breed up, or improve, 
a herd of common, native or mixed cattle is most 
likely to prove successful. 

In the improvement of a herd of cows it has been 
very common to recommend that the practice should 
be to use a pure-bred bull, and to raise the heifer 
calves from the best cows in the herd. Whether or 
not this practice is correct will depend, to a great 



Selection of Calves 59 

extent, on what is meant by the term "best cows.'^ 
If it means merely that the heifer calves from the 
common cows that are the highest producers are to be 
raised, it cannot be accepted without qualification. 
The first and great step in improvement under such a 
course of breeding comes from the prepotent qualities 
of the bull. Logically, therefore, the best calves to 
raise are those in which the prepotent qualities of the 
male are most clearly shown at time of birth, such as 
color markings, or similar characteristics. These may 
or may not be the offspring of the highest -producing 
cows. The foundation herd of cows is admittedly in- 
ferior, even in the best of them. If proper judgment 
has been exercised in. selecting the bull, there is in 
him greater chance for improvement than exists in any 
of the cows, even the best. It would, therefore, seem 
to be good logic and safe practice to disregard the 
milking qualities of the cow entirely in the first gen- 
eration, and depend on the prepotency of the bull. 

A great advantage in the rapid improvement of a 
herd of cows under this grading -up process is the 
ability to raise a large number of individuals up to 
the time they begin to produce, so that a greater num- 
ber may be available from which to select. In the 
first generation, therefore, it is a great advantage to 
be able to raise all of the half-blood heifer calves that 
resemble their sire and that are born strong and with 
good vital powers, irrespective of the qualities of their 
dams. In many cases, however, the circumstances of 
the owner do not admit of rearing so large a number, 
and some selection must be made at the time of birth. 



60 Milk and Its Products 

If we concede that it is not an entirely safe practice to 
base this selection upon the producing capacity of the 
dams, we must look for some other basis of selection. 

It is a generally accepted principle of heredity that 
an animal which shows a tendency toward variation 
is one that is not likely to be prepotent. We desire 
to raise calves from cows that are not prepotent, in 
order that the prepotent qualities of the bull may 
have full scope. Cows, then, that show tendency 
toward variation, particularly toward improvement, 
are logically the ones over which the male is most 
likely to be prepotent, and at the same time the calves 
show the greatest tendency toward improvement. It 
is comparatively easy to determine in any herd of 
cows those which show the greatest tendency toward 
variation, and more particularly those which show 
the greatest tendency toward improvement when their 
conditions are made more favorable. We can then 
determine the cows from which we are likely to get 
the best half-blood heifer calves by giving the herd 
more and better feed, and selecting calves from those 
animals which show the greatest improvement under 
such a change of treatment. 

Experience has shown that where the principles 
stated above have been carefully carried out a very 
satisfactory improvement has been secured in the first 
generation. It is not uncommon to find an increase 
of fully 50 per cent in the average production of half- 
blood cows over their common mothers. Experience 
has also shown that in the second generation the 
three -quarter -bloods are not nearly so uniform as 



Inbreeding 61 

the half-bloods, and frequently show little, if- any, 
increase in average production, though a few indi- 
viduals will show a marked improvement. The ques- 
tion then comes as to how to secure a greater uni- 
formity and a higher average production in the second 
generation or the three -quarter -bloods. 

If the selection of the original pure -bred bull has 
been a wise one, and if he was a young animal at the 
time of his purchase, there will be a considerable 
number of his half-blood offspring ready to be bred 
while he is. still in the zenith of his powers. Most 
breeders hesitate to breed such an animal to his own 
offspring, and it is seldom recommended. But if 
inbreeding is ever likely to be followed with useful 
results, it will be under just such conditions; and, 
in proportion as both the bull and the half-blood 
heifers show strong individual vital powers, the prac- 
tice is to be recommended. In a majority of cases 
the very best bull to breed to a lot of high-quality, 
uniform, half-blood heifers is their own sire, if it is 
desired to secure greater uniformity and greater aver- 
age production in their offspring. The reason for the 
lack of uniformity in the three -quarter -bred offspring 
is the fact that reversions occur to the qualities of 
their common and mixed grandmothers. It will re- 
quire, then, even stronger prepotency to overcome this 
tendency to reversion, and the animal which is most 
likely to be prepotent over such half-bloods is their 
own sire. 

It must be remembered that the improved produc- 
tion in the first place was secured by improving the 



62 Milh and Its Products 

conditions of environment, which, so far as the ordi- 
nary dairy herd is concerned, means simply more 
food; and that it was perpetuated in the case of pure- 
bred animals by selection. Having obtained improve- 
ment now by the use of a pure -bred male on com- 
mon or mixed females, it is, of course, necessary 
that it shall be maintained by liberal care and 
feeding. A pure -bred animal can transmit only its 
inherited tendencies, and if these inherited tendencies 
are not backed up by abundant and nutritious food, 
the improvement secured is sure to be lost. Having 
now secured a marked improvement in two or three 
generations by the use of a pure -bred male on com- 
mon or mixed females, with intelligent selection and 
intelligent inbreeding, the further course of improve- 
ment is the maintenance of proper conditions of 
environment and careful selection. As generations 
come on, characteristics of the original pure -bred sire 
will become more and more fixed and uniform, rever- 
sions will be less and less frequent, and the herd will 
be practically pure -bred from the standpoint of the 
capacity of individual members to reproduce their 
characteristics, though they never become eligible to 
registration in the herd book. This is a course that 
has been successfully practiced in the improvement of 
a large number of herds of dairy animals, and is 
entirely within the reach of anyone of ordinary skill 
and intelligence. 

Major and minor dairy breeds. — The breeds of dairy 
cattle have been developed in the main in localities 
where, for one reason or another, a dairy industry 



Major and Minor Dairy Breeds 63 

has sprung up, and where the localities have been 
more or less isolated, and the cattle have developed 
from the local cattle of the district by constant selec- 
tion of those . that are the most puofitable producers. 
In some cases this selection has been going on for 
more than a hundred years. While the domestic ox 
is more or less variable in size, in conformation and 
in color, the number of breeds of cattle is not large, 
and they group themselves into the dairy and beef 
breeds, according to the purpose for which each has 
been selected. 

At the present time in the United States there are 
about twenty well-recognized breeds, m about half of 
which the dairy is the leading characteristic. Four 
breeds maintain a leading position among dairy cattle; 
namely, Jersey, Guernsey, Holstein-Friesian and Ayr- 
shire. Five other breeds occupy a minor position, but 
are still numerous enough to demand attention; 
namely. Shorthorn, Red Polled, Brown Swiss, Dutch 
Belted and Devon. Four breeds are ilative of Great 
Britain; namely, Ayrshire, Shorthorn, Red Polled 
and Devon. Two, Jersey and Guernsey, .are native of 
the Channel Islands. Two, Holstein-Friesian and 
Dutch Belted, are native of the Kingdom of the Nether- 
lands; and one. Brown Swiss, comes from Switzerland. 

The breeds are easily distinguished one from 
another by size, conformation and color markings. 
They all have the characteristic wedge-shaped form of 
the dairy animal distinctly developed, and all have 
noteworthy dairy capacity, as shown by their large, 
symmetrical udders. 




64 Milk and Its Products 

Jerseys. — Jersey cattle, as the name indicates, orig- 
inated upon the Island of Jersey, which is the largest 

one of the Channel Island 
group, a group of about 
twenty small islands lying 
in the English Channel, 
near the coast of France, 
but belonging, politically, 
to Great Britain. There is 

Fig. 2. Jersey cow. 

no doubt that the cattle 
originally upon the island came from the mainland of 
France. For more than one hundred years the people 
of the Island of Jersey have absolutely prohibited 
the importation of live neat cattle from any other 
country, and the blood has therefore been maintained 
pure for more than one hundred years. Somewhat 
before the middle of the nineteenth century, dairying 
began to be an important farm industry upon the 
island, and the farmers began to give attention to the 
development of their cattle, both as to production and 
to form, and the develop- 
ment has been continuous 
ever since. 

Jersey cattle are charac- 
terized by small size, spare, 
angular forms and curved 
outlines, dished faces, 
crooked legs, and often r.- n t 

^ ' Fig. 3. Jersey bull, 

rather crooked backs. They 

have a rather delicate, nervous organization, and, 

when carefully handled, are extremely docile and 




Jerseys and Guernseys 65 

gentle, but they are easily disturbed by ill usage, aud 
under such unfavorable conditions, the males particu- 
larly, often become ill-tempered and unmanageable. 
In color, they are fawn, shaded through the various 
shades of gray to black, often more or less spotted 
with white. The tips of the horns, muzzle, tongue 
and hoofs are black. In England and in the United 
States, Jersey cattle with no white markings have 
always been favorites, and this has had a consider- 
able influence upon breeders upon the Island of 
Jersey, but there still remain a considerable propor- 
tion of animals more or less spotted with white. 

Jersey cattle yield moderate amounts of milk rich 
in butter fat, the percentage of fat running ordi- 
narily from 4.5 to 6 in cows in full flow of milk. 
The fat globules are also large and highly colored, 
giving the butter a very attractive appearance. 

The first Jerseys were introduced into the United 
States about 1850, though they increased slowly until 
about 1870, since which time they have increased 
rapidly, and have adapted themselves to dairy condi- 
tions over the whole country from Canada to the Gulf 
of Mexico, and from Maine to the Pacific Coast. 
They are the' most widely distributed and the most 
numerous of any of the dairy breeds. 

Guernseys. — Guernsey cattle originated upon the 
Island of Guernsey, another island of the Channel 
Island group, and next in size and importance to 
Jersey. The conditions under which Guernsey cattle 
developed are almost identical with those upon the 
Island of Jersey, and the same regulations with 



66 



Milk and Its Products 




Fig. 4. Guernsey bu 



respect to importations from outside have also been 

enforced. Guernsey cattle resemble Jerseys in many 

respects, particularly as to amount, quality and color 

of the milk and milk fat, and they undoubtedly had 

a common origin with Jerseys on the mainland of 

France. They are distinguished from the Jerseys by 

slightly larger size, by rather 

straighter forms, and by 

a distinctly yellower color 

of the skin. In color they 

are uniformly fawn and 

white. Occasionally animals 

are seen that are brindled, 

but they are not common. 

The muzzle and the hoofs 

are flesh- or amber -colored, 

instead of black, as in the 

case of the Jersey. 

Another island of the 
Channel group called Alder- 
ney supports cattle. The 
Island of Alderney is a 
part of the Bailiwick of 
Guernsey, and the cattle on 
Alderney are in no sense distinct from those on 
Guernsey, and at the present time are all included in 
the same breed. 

Rolstein-Friesians. — Holstein-Friesian cattle or, as 
they are more commonly called, Holsteins, are natives 
of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, and originated in 
two provinces of that kingdom, namely, North Hol- 




Fig. 5. Guernsey cow. 



Fig. 6. Holstein-Friesian cow. 



.Rolstein - Friesians 67 

land and West Friesland. The name Holstein is an 
entire misnomer to this breed of cattle, so far as any 
geographical distinction is 
concerned. None of the 
ancestors of the cattle of 
this breed ever came from 
the Duchy of Schleswig- 
Holstein, although the cattle 
of these districts, and some 
other Prussian provinces, 
are not greatly different 
from what are known in the United States as Hol- 
stein cattle. The proper geographical name for this 
breed would undoubtedly be Dutch. Dutch farmers 
have long been noted for their thrift, and the man- 
ufacture of dairy products, particularly of cheese, 
has been an important industry in North Holland 
for very many years. The land is fertile and emi- 
nently suited to the production of grass, but it is 

high priced, since it is pro- 
tected from the encroach- 
ment of the sea by an exten- 
sive series of costly dykes 
^ T'ife^^BH^ M|f and embankments. 

I \ '''" ^ ^W In order that the Dutch 

farmer may make dairy 
products profitable on such 
high-priced land, he must 

Fig. 7c Holstein- Friesian bull. «« • j • i 

have a very efncient animal, 
and under these circumstances the Holstein cow has 
been developed. The natural conservatism of the 




68 Milk and Its Products 

Dutch race has prevented the importation of animals 
from other countries, and so the race has been kept 
practically pure, some authorities say for as much 
as two hundred and fifty years. The Dutch cattle 
have been developed very largely upon grass in lux- 
uriant pastures in the summer time, and on hay, 
supplemented with very little grain, in the winter. 
This has resulted in developing an animal of large 
size, capable, of yielding a large flow of milk, but 
milk not very rich in fat," which is the prominent 
characteristic of this race of cattle.- 

Holstein cattle are large in size, ranking well up 
with the Shorthorn, Hereford and other beef breeds. 
They are inclined to have straight bones, long^ faces, 
straight, sometimes rather long legs, and straight 
backs. Many animals, however, have a distinct droop 
to the rump from the hip to the root of the tail, 
which breeders constantly select against. 

In color, Holstein cattle are black and white, and 
in any proportion, running from almost pure white to 
almost pure black, and, in cases where the colors are 
more equally distributed, the colors may be finely 
broken up, or may be in large patches. Most Ameri- 
can breeders prefer an animal rather more than half 
white, with the black and white colors in rather large 
areas. Peculiarities of coloring, either in propor- 
tions or markings, do not run very strongly in fam- 
ily lines, and an animal that is largely white may, 
and often does, produce offspring in which black is 
the predominating color, and vice versa. 

Holstein cattle were introduced into the United 



Ayr shires 



69 



States about 1860. They increased very slowly until 
about 1880, since which time they have become very 
numerous, particularly in those localities where the 
sale of milk for market purposes is the chief dairy 
industry, and in many such localities they are rapidly 
coming" to be almost the only dairy breed kept. 

AyrsMres. — Ayrshire cattle, as the name implies, 
originated in the county of Ajv in southwestern Scot- 
land. Up to about 1800 there was no particular type 
of cattle in this locality, but about this time dairying 
began to be developed, particularly in the parish of 
Dunlop, and the more enterprising dairymen began to 
select cows for dairy production from the common 
stock of the country. It is supposed that the original 
stock of the county of Ayr had a more or less mixed 
origin, but the Ayrshire breed took on distinctive 
characters as early as 1830, and since that time has 
developed into one of the chief dairy breeds in Scot- 
land, in Canada and in the United States. 

Ayrshire cattle are of 
medium size, distinctly 
hirger than the Jersey, and 
distinctly smaller than the 
Holstein. They are charac- 
terized by extremely straight 
and smooth forms, with 
round bodies, slim necks 
and legs, and long, slim, 
upright horns. They are 
extremely active in disposition, and alert, and stylish 
in appearance. These qualities have been developed 




Fig. 8. Ayrshii-e cow. 



70 Milk and Its Products 

as fancy points by many AjTshire breeders. Their 
activity and disposition leads them to be extremely 

good grazers, and they are 
^: better suited to sparse and 
l^^k^ rough pasture than any other 
^ .^ ^w^" breed, though they respond 

/"^ X£i^^^ / quite as well to generous 

treatment with respect to 
abundant food supply. Ayr- 
shire breeders have given 
Fig. 9. Ayrshire bull. ^^^^ attention to the form 

and symmetrical shape of the udder, and have 
selected animals with large udders, straight and full 
at the back and level on the floor, extending well 
forward on the belly. The teats are cylindrical and 
placed far apart, but in very many cases are too short 
to be convenient. 

In color, the Ayrshire is any combination of light 
red, red, red-brown, or dark brown with white. The 
dark color in the case of some bulls is almost black. 
Modern Ayrshire breeders distinctly prefer those ani- 
mals in which the white color is largely predominat- 
ing, and many modern Ayrshires might be described 
as white, with small patches of the darker color 
scattered over the body. 

Ayrshire cattle were first brought to America by 
way of Canada some time previous to the middle of 
the ninteenth century, and shortly after they were 
introduced into the eastern United States. The num- 
bers, however, remained small, although there are 
numerous localities in New York and New England 



Shorthorns 71 

where Ayrshires have been constantly kept since 
before the close of the Civil War. In those localities, 
where Ayrshires have been kept longest without impor- 
tations from Scotland, they have taken on a rather 
different type. They have lost something of the 
smoothness of form, have increased somewhat in size, 
the udders have lost some of the symmetry, and dark 
colors usually predominate. Usually they have lost 
nothing in productivity, and some of the largest pro- 
ducers of the breed may be found in these localities. 
Animals of this sort are often spoken of as, belonging 
to the American type in contradistinction to those 
first described, which are commonly known as of the 
Canadian or Scotch type. 

The Ayrshire ordinarily produces milk and butter 
in relatively large amounts for the amount of food 
consumed, but, considering the cow as an individual, 
the AjTshire does not yield so much milk as the Hol- 
stein, and the milk is not so rich as that of the Jersey 
or Guernsey. Consequently they have to compete 
with all the other breeds, and they remain in point 
of numbers distinctly below the other three breeds in 
nearly all dairy localities. 

Shorthorns. — While the Shorthorn ranks among 
the leading beef breeds, it should also be considered 
from the standpoint of the dair3^ The original Short- 
horn cow was a notable milk producer, and some of 
the earlier breeders gave attention to their develop- 
ment along this line, but the demand for beef over- 
shadowed the dairy, and many tribes and families of 
Shorthorns have been bred so . strongly for beef for 




72 Milk and Its Products 

so long a time that their dairy capacity has almost 

completely disappeared. On the other hand, a few 

breeders have maintained 

the milking qualities of their 

herds, and there are perhaps 

a dozen to twenty herds, 

scattered in various parts 

of the country, that are 

notable for dairy qualities, 

and are known as milking 

Shorthorns. In England, 

also, there has been a recent ^^^- ^^- ^''^^^ ^iiorthom cow 

renewal of interest in milking Shorthorns, and there 

are several notable herds in that country. Most of 

the Shorthorns that show good milking qualities trace 

their descent to families that originated in the herd 

of Thomas Bates, one of the earliest and most famous 

of Shorthorn breeders. 

The Shorthorn originated in the valley of the 
river Tees, in the counties of Durham, Northumber- 
land and Yorkshire, in northeastern England. They 
rank as the largest of the breeds of cattle. They have 
massive rectangular forms, short legs, short necks, 
and short, usually incurving horns. In color, they 
are usually spoken of as the red, white and roan. 
Their normal colors are red or white, or any combina- 
tion of these colors, either in the intimate mixture 
known as roan, or spotted red and white. The red 
should be a clear red -brown, not shading to yellow on 
the one hand, nor to black on the other. At one 
time the clear red animals were much more sought 



Bed Polled and Brown Swiss 73 

after iu the United States. At the present time there 
is no particular preference to colors or mixtures of 
colors. 

The milk of Shorthorn cattle is of moderate rich- 
ness in quality, and in quantity must rank below the 
Holsteins and Ayrshires. 

Bed Polled. — Red Polled cattle, as their name indi- 
cates, are a clear red hornless breed. They originated 
in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk in eastern 
England, where they have been bred with considerable 
care for from fifty to seventy -five years. They are 
of medium to large size, ranking just below the Short- 
horns, often have well -developed wedge-shaped forms, 
although many individuals approach too nearly to 
the beef type to be called first-class dairy animals. 
They are quiet in disposition, and their lack of horns 
makes them a favorite with some. In amount and 
quality of milk they rank with the better type of milk- 
ing Shorthorns. There have been a few notable 
producers among them, but, as a rule, they cannot 
compete in amount of product with the leading dairy 
breeds, and are found in only small numbers in the 
United States. 

Brown Swiss. — Brown Swiss cattle are native of 
the forest -cantons of Switzerland, notably the canton 
of Schwyz, where dairying has been extensively devel- 
oped upon the mountain pastures. They are a large 
breed, with very heavy, coarse bones, thick hides and 
large extremities. They are quiet in disposition. In 
color, they are a uniform grayish brown, with a ring 
of lighter hairs about the muzzle, and shading to 



74 Milk and Its Products 

black on the legs and tail. Their bodies are rather 
heavy and somewhat beefy, though occasional animals 
show the distinctive dairy form. As a rule, they are 
not large producers, although occasional individuals 
are found that rank well up with individuals of the 
leading dairy breeds. There are comparatively few 
herds in this country. Their owners, however, are 
strong partizans of the breed, and claim for them the 
advantages of docility, hardiness and constitutional 
vigor. 

Butch Belted. — Dutch Belted cattle are a race 
resembling the Holsteins, and probably closely related 
to them. They are distinctly smaller in size, and the 
black and white colors are segregated in black extremi- 
ties, and a broad white band about the middle. They 
are found in Holland, usually on large private estates, 
and are there known as Lakenvelders. They were 
introduced into the United States with the early Dutch 
settlers about New York, and have shown such power 
of transmitting their external characteristics that they 
maintained themselves practically pure, with no herd 
book organization, until the latter part of the nine- 
teenth century. In general characteristics they re- 
semble the Holsteins, but their smaller size and 
smaller production do not enable them to compete 
with the more important breeds. They are kept in 
small numbers by those who fancy their peculiar 
markings of form. 

Bevons. — Devon cattle, as the name indicates, orig- 
inated in the county of Devon in southwestern Eng- 
land. They are also found to some extent in Corn- 



Devons 75 

wall, Somersetshire and Dorsetshire. They have been 
developed from the native cattle of the country, aloDg 
both beef and dairy lines. They are medium to small 
in size, have very neat, symmetrical, smooth, round 
forms, in which respect they somewhat resemble the 
Ayrshire. They are also sprightly and active in dis- 
position, and unusually intelligent. Thefr horns are 
long, ivory-white, slender and upright. They give a 
moderate quantity of fairly rich milk. Undoubtedly 
Devons, or cattle similar to them, were among the 
first imported into the United States from England 
by the early colonists. As pure-breds they have ex- 
isted for more than one hundred years, but never in 
very large numbers. Because of their docility and 
capability for training, they have always been favor- 
ites in localities where oxen are used for labor. At 
the present time, as pure -bred animals, there are 
very few remaining. 

From time to time other breeds have been repre- 
sented in this country, but they never have been 
numerous enough to form any important part of dairy 
stock. Among such breeds may be mentioned the 
Normandy, the Simmenthal, the French Canadian, 
and the Kerry. 

The Normandies are a medium -sized, parti -colored 
breed from Northern France. Simmenthal coming 
from the valley of the Simme, in Switzerland, resemble 
very closely the Brown Swiss in form and character. 
They are fawn and white in color. The French Can- 
adian has been bred in the French provinces of Can- 
ada, since the time of the first settlers, from animals 



76 Milh and Its Products 

brought from France at that time. They are a hardy, 
active race and are good and profitable producers. 
They give promise of future development. The Kerry 
is the diminutive cow of the Irish peasant and is 
more curious than useful in this countrv. 



CHAPTER IV 

THE TESTING OF MILK 

Milk is so variable in composition, and so ea- 
sily adulterated, that it frequently becomes of great 
importance to be able to ascertain with a fair de- 
gree of accuracy the composition of any given 
sample. 

HISTORY OF MILK TESTS 

Gravimetric analysis. — The most accurate way to 
determine the composition of milk is by means of an 
exact chemical analysis. The constituents of milk 
which it is most frequently necessary to determine 
are the total solids and fat. The total solids are 
determined by drying an accurately weighed portion 
of the milk at the temperature of boiling water 
until it no longer loses weight. The residue is the 
total solids, and its weight, divided by the weight 
of the original amount taken, will give the percent- 
age of total solids. The fats may then be deter- 
mined by extracting the residue with anhydrous 
ether until nothing more is dissolved, and then 
evaporating the ether and weighing the resulting 
fat directly. Various forms of apparatus for mak- 
ing these determinations have been devised by vari- 

(77) 



78 Milk and Its Products 

ous chemists, a considerable number of which give 
very accurate results. Chief among these methods 
for determining fat and total solids are the Babcock 
asbestos method and the Adams paper -coil method. 
In order that these determinations may be made 
with accuracy, balances of extreme delicacy, and 
apparatus more or less complicated and requiring 
considerable skill in its manipulation, are necessary, 
so' that for ordinary commercial purposes they are 
practically out of reach. 

History of millc tests. — Although consumers of 
milk had felt for a long time the necessity of 
some means of protection against dishonest dealers, 
it was not until the development of the factory sys- 
tem of manufacturing cheese (1850) and butter 
(1870) that some means of easily determining the 
composition of milk, particularly as to fat content, 
became important to both producers and manufac- 
turers. From that time on various methods have 
been devised, from the simple expedient of raising 
the cream in a small sample of milk in a graduated 
glass to apparatus^ almost as complicated and 
difficult of manipulation as the gravimetric methods 
themselves. 

Cream, gauges. — The simplest and one of the 
earliest methods used to determine the quality of 
milk is to set a small portion of it under such con- 
ditions that the cream would be thoroughly thrown 
to the surface and easily measured. These were 
known as cream glasses, cream gauges, or cream- 
ometers, and to a certain extent served a useful pur* 



Lactometers 79 

pose ; but it was soon found that the percentage of 
cream depends not so much upon the amount of fat 
present in the milk as upon the size of the globules 
and the conditions under which they are brought 
to the surface, and that the percentage of cream 
does not necessarily bear a constant relation to the 
percentage of fat. 

Specific gravity. — The determination of the spe- 
cific gravity was next brought into use as a means 
of determining the quality of milk. Inasmuch as 
milk is slightly heavier than water, and as water is 
the most common adulterant of milk, any addition 
of water to it would serve to lessen its specific 
gravity, and would easily be detected by a determi- 
nation of the specific gravity. To determine the 
specific gravity of milk, various forms of specific 
gravity hydrometers, known as lactometers, have 
been devised. They were formerly very much more 
depended upon as a test of the quality of milk than 
at present, and though now we have learned that 
under certain conditions a simple specific gravity 
test may not only be inaccurate, but entirely mis- 
leading, still they are of considerable use for cer- 
tain purposes and in connection with certain other 
instruments. 

Lactometers. — In devising the lactometer, it was as- 
sumed that 1.029 was as low as the specific gravity of 
any unadulterated milk would ever fall ; therefore a 
hydrometer was devised, the scale of which was gradu- 
ated from to 120, the marking the point of pure 
water, or a specific gravity of 1.000, and 100 cor- 



80 



Milh and Its Products 



responding- to the 
milk, or 1.029. 
If, then, in any 
given sample of 
milk the lactom- 
eter fell to 90, 
it would indicate 
the presence of 10 
per cent of water ; 
if it fell to 75, of 
25 per cent of 
water, etc. This 
form of lactometer 
is now known as 
the common, or- 
dinary or Board 
of Health lactom- 
eter. A second 
form of lactometer 
in common use 
was devised by 
Quevenne, and 
bears his name. 
The scale of this 
hydrometer is or- 
dinarily graduated 
from 15 to 40, the 
29 being coinci- 
dent with 100 up- 



assumed least specific gravity of 



1.000 




t 












1.005- 
1.010- 
1.015- 
1.020- 
1.025- 


_ 


10- 
20- 
30- 
40- 
50- 
60- 
70- 
80- 
90- 
100 


z 

Z 


15- 

20- 
25- 


~ 

~ 




1.030- 
1.035- 




110- 
120- 


-^ 


30- 
35- 

40- 


- 





B 



on the ordinary lac- Fig. n. comparison of graduation on lactometer 
fr\mofaT» o-nrl -tirifVi Stems : J., hydrometer .B, Ordinary lactometer ; 

IOmeter ana Wltn O, Quevenne lactometer. 



Relation of Quevenne to Ordinary Lactometer 81 

a specific gravity of 1.029 upon the ordinary hy- 
drometer. The accompanying sketch (see opposite 
page) shows the relative vahies of the degrees upon 
the ordinary hydrometer, the ordinary lactometer and 
the Quevenne lactometer. With the Quevenne lac- 
tometer the specific gravity of the milk can be at 
once read, a degree upon this scale being equivalent 
to one degree of specific gravity. Since 100 degrees 
upon the ordinary lactometer indicate a specific gravity 
of 1.029, the specific gravity of any ordinary lactometer 
reading may be obtained by multiplying the reading by 
.29, dividing bj" 1,000 and adding 1. Twenty-nine Que- 
venne degrees are also equivalent to 100 ordinary de- 
grees, so that Quevenne readings may be changed to the 
ordinary readings by dividing by .29, and ordinary 
readings may be changed to Quevenne readings by 
multiplying by .29. 

The relative densit}^ of milk varies with its tem- 
perature, so that a hydrometer is only correct at one 
given temperature. Most hydrometers are graduated 
for a temperature of 60° F., and the better forms 
have an attached thermometer ; so that if the milk 
to be tested varies from this in either direction a cor- 
rection must be made. As the density increases with 
a reduction of temperature and decreases with a rise 
of temperature, the correction must be subtracted in 
going from a lower to a higher and added in going from 
a higher to a lower temperature. The amount of such 
correction for the Quevenne lactometer is .1 of a lac- 
tometer degree for each degree of temperature, and for 
the ordinary lactometer one lactometer degree for each 3 

F 



82 Milk and Its Products 

degrees of temperature' In no event should the 
temperature of the milk to be tested be more than 10 
degrees warmer or colder than the standard, and it is 
much better if the temperature does not vary from 
the standard more than 5 degrees in either direction. 
The solids in milk are not all of the same 
specific gravity ; some are heavier and some lighter 
than water. The fats are lighter, the other solids 
are all heavier. The specific gravity of the milk, 
then, depends not only upon the amount of solids 
present in the milk, but also upon their relative 
proportions. The specific gravity of milk msiy be 
affected by the addition of any substance to it or 
the abstraction of any of its constituents. Since 
some of the constituents of milk are lighter than 
water, their abstraction in whole or in part would be 
followed by an increase in density. It will be 
readily seen, then, that if a part of the fats are re- 
moved, the specific gravity of the skimmed or partly 
skimmed milk will be heavier than normal, and the 
addition of a certain amount of water or other sub- 
stance lighter than the milk would only serve to 
bring the specific gravity back to the normal point. 
In this way, if it is done skilfully, water may be 
added to milk, and cream abstracted from it, with- 
out affecting the specific gravity as revealed by the 
lactometer, and a very inferior sample of milk might 
pass as perfectly normal if the lactometer alone 
were depended upon for its detection. Mainlj^ for 
this reason the lactometer has been superseded by 
other and more accurate instruments. 



Operation of Test Churns 83 

Churn tests. — The first butter factories or cream- 
eries were managed upon what is known as the 
cream -gathering system : that is, the cream was 
raised and skimmed upon the farm, and it alone 
taken to the factory. It was soon found that the 
cream varied considerably in the percentage of fat 
that it contained, and, moreover, that a consider- 
able amount of milk could be mixed with the 
cream without being detected by ordinary means. 
In other words, the managers of factories learned 
that cream as it came to them was even more 
variable in its percentage of fat than whole milk. 
In all of the earlier factories the cream was paid 
for simply by measure, and it became necessary to 
devise some means of making an equitable division 
among the different patrons, and of protecting the 
factory from loss. To do this, what was known 
as test churns were devised. At the time of 
gathering the cream, a small sample ( a pint or 
quart) of each patron's cream was taken in a sep- 
arate vessel. These were taken to the factory 
and churned separately in small tin cans, and the 
butter made up from each. The butter -producing 
power of the single pint or quart was taken as a 
measure of the butter value of the whole amount 
of that patron's cream, and the proceeds were ap- 
portioned accordingly. This method was much more 
]ust than a simple measure of the cream, but it 
was very cumbersome. It required delicate manip- 
ulation in order to make all of the little pats of 
butter of the same water content, and the small 



84 Milk and Its Products 

amounts of butter so made were of inferior com- 
mercial quality, could not be mixed with the whole 
mass of butter, and entailed a considerable loss 
upon the creamery. 

The oil -test churn was an outgrowth of this 
method, intended to remedy its defects, and was in 
a great measure successful. In operating the oil -test 
churn, the individual samples taken from each patron 
were very much smaller, and were taken in small 
glass tubes. These tubes were put in a frame and 
agitated until the fat was drawn together in a solid 
mass ; the tubes were then immersed in water suf- 
ficiently warmed to melt the fat, and when so 
melted the fat would float upon the surface of the 
liquid in the tube. The tubes were allowed to 
become cool, were then a second time agitated to 
churn any particles of fat that had escaped the 
first churning, and the fat remelted ; it then ap- 
peared in the form of a clear layer of liquid upon 
the top of the contents of the tube, and could be 
readily measured. The proportion of melted fat 
so obtained was taken as a measure of the butter 
value of the cream of which it was a sample. 
This test was generally used in cream -gathering 
factories, and was a very fair measure of the 
butter value of the cream. There was always a 
portion of the fat remaining unchurned, but in 
cream it was a small percentage. In milk, how- 
ever, it was a much larger proportion, and the 
oil -test churn was never successfully used for de- 
termining fat in milk. 



Lactobutyrometer and Pioscope 85 

Inventions for testing milk. — Several instruments 
of European invention have been described for the 
quick determination of the fat in milk. Some of 
them make volumetric determinations of the fat or 
cream ; others depend simply upon the opacity of 
the milk. One or two are in common use in 
Germany and Denmark, but, though most of them 
have been introduced in the United States, none 
have come into general use. The more important 
of these are the following : 

Marchand^s lactobutyrometer. — This is an instru- 
ment for quickly determining, volumetrically, the 
fat in milk. A measured sample of milk is intro- 
duced into a long glass tube graduated at the 
upper end. A certain amount of acetic acid is 
added and thoroughh^ mixed with the milk, after 
which ether is added to dissolve the fat, and with 
the aid of a small amount of heat the fat is col- 
lected into the upper graduated portion of the tube 
and read off volumetrically. The lactobutyrometer 
was introduced about 1877, and was used with 
more or less success for a time. In certain sam- 
ples of milk it was found to be difficult to get a 
clear separation of the fat, and in certain other 
samples, notably the milk produced from various 
foods, it was found that the results could not be 
relied upon. 

Reeren^s pioscope. — This is a simple little instru- 
ment designed to test the quality of milk by 
means of its opacity. It consists of a hard rubber 
disc, in the center of which is a small depression, 



86 Milk and Its Products 

and the surrounding circle painted in segments of 
varying shades to represent cream, very rich milk, 
normal milk, poor milk, etc. A drop of the milk 
to be tested is placed in the central depression 
and covered with a glass plate, so that a layer of 
uniform thickness is always obtained. The opacity 
of this drop of milk upon the black background 
of rubber is then compared with a corresponding 
segment of the circle. In so far as the fat 
measures the opacity of the milk, this is a fairly 
reliable test ; and, used in connection with a specific 
gravity lactometer, a person with some experience 
can readily detect suspected samples of milk, although, 
of course, it is not possible to estimate very closely 
the amount of adulteration or the quality of the 
milk. The pioscope has been used very generally 
and successfully by milk inspectors and those hav- 
ing the control of city milk supply. 

Feser^s lactoscope is another instrument designed 
to determine the quality of milk by opacity. It 
consists of a glass cylinder, in the center of which 
is fixed a white rod graduated with black lines. 
A certain amount of milk is put into the cylinder, 
and by its opacity renders the black lines upon 
the central standard invisible. Water is then added 
to the milk in measured quantity until the black 
lines can be seen, the amount of water so added 
indicating the quality of the milk. This instru- 
ment is more delicate than the pioscope, but it can 
not be so quickly and readily used. The results 
it gives are of very much the same nature and 



Various European Tests 87 

value as those obtained by the use of the pioscope, 
consequently it has never been used to any great 
extent. 

SoxhleVs method.— In testing milk by this method, 
the fat in a measured quantity of milk is dissolved 
in ether, the specific gravity of the ether solution 
determined, and from this the percentage of fat is 
calculated. The greater the specific gravity of the 
ether solution the greater the percentage of fat, 
and since the difference in the specific gravity of 
fat and ether is considerable, the addition of a 
small amount of fat will perceptibly affect the specific 
gravity, so that the determination is a very delicate 
one. The determination is made in a specially de- 
vised apparatus known as Soxhlet's Aerometer. It 
has been widely adopted in Germany, but not at all 
in the United States outside of chemical labora- 
tories. 

BeLaval lactocrite. — This is a machine devised by 
the inventor of the centrifugal separator to esti- 
mate the fat in milk volumetrically. The sample 
to be tested is put in a glass tube with an equal 
amount of concentrated acetic acid containing 5 per 
cent of concentrated sulphuric acid, and the mixture 
heated for a few minutes, after which it is whirled 
in a centrifugal machine until the fat is brought to 
the center. It is then read off volumetrically. The 
lactocrite gives a very close determination of the 
fat in milk, but it is necessary to have a separator 
frame in which to whirl the apparatus, which makes 
it somewhat expensive. 



88 Milk and Its Products 

Fjord's control apparatus. — This apparatus, in- 
vented by the late Professor Fjord, of Denmark, 
estimates the fat by measuring the solidified cream. 
Glass tubes similar to those used in the oil -test 
churn are secured in a frame and a measured quan- 
tity of milk put in each. The frame holding the 
bottles is then whirled in a centrifugal separator 
frame till the cream is completely separated and 
brought together in a compact mass. This re- 
quires about forty -five minutes. The solid mass 
of cream is then measured with a scale and the 
fat estimated from it by means of a table con- 
structed by the inventor. This apparatus is in 
very common use in Denmark, but has never - been 
introduced into this country. 

Development of milk tests in the United States. — Up 
to the year 1888, there had been no apparatus devised 
which would determine the fat in milk accurately, 
easily, cheaply and quickly. None of the methods 
described could in any sense supply the place of the 
gravimetric analysis, even for commercial purposes. 
The oil -test churn came the nearest to it, but that 
was of no use for milk, and at this time the separa- 
tor creamery was beginning to supplant the gathered- 
cream factory, and the demand was constantly 
stronger for a means of determining the fat in milk. 
This year also marked the establishment of the na- 
tional grant to Agricultural Experiment Stations in 
each of the states, and one of the first problems at- 
tacked by the chemists of these stations was to de- 
vise a quick method for the determination of fat in 



American Tests 89 

milk. In the next two years no less than seven dis 
tinct methods were devised by chemists of Agricul- 
tural Experiment Stations for this purpose. All of 
them w^ere much better than any that had hitherto 
been known, but one was so much in advance of 
any of the others that now it is practically the only 
method used for the quick determination of fat in 
milk. This is the method devised by Dr. S. M. Bab- 
cock, known as the Babcock test, and first published 
in July, 1890. The various tests, in the order of 
their publication, were as follows : 

SJiorfs metJiod. — This method was invented by 
F. G. Short, at that time chemist of the Wisconsin 
Agricultural Experiment Station, ana was first pub- 
lished in Bulletin No. 16 of the Wisconsin Agricul- 
tural Experiment Station for July, 1888. In brief, 
the method consisted in converting the fat in the 
milk into a soap by means of an alkali, and then dis- 
solving the soap by an acid, setting free the fat. 
The process was rendered complete bj^ boiling for 
several hours. The determination was made with a 
measured quantity of milk in a glass test bottle with 
a narrow graduated neck, into which the fat was 
raised at the end of the process and read off volu- 
metrically. Considerably difficulty was often ex- 
perienced in getting a clear separation of the fat 
from the contents of the tube. The long period of 
boiling was also an important drawback to the 
method. 

The method of Failyer and Willard. — This method 
was devised by Professors Failyer and Willard, of 



90 Milk and Its Products 

the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, and 
was published in the report of that station for 1888. 
In it the solids of milk were destroyed by hydro- 
chloric acid and the fat partially separated by means 
of heat. The fat was then dissolved in gasoline, and, 
after evaporation of the gasoline, was measured in 
a graduated portion of the tube in which the opera- 
tion was performed. It gave a clearer reading of 
the fat than Short's method, but required more deli- 
cate manipulation, particularly in heating the acid 
and milk together and in evaporating the gasoline. 
The time required was considerably less than with 
Short's method. 

Parsons^ method. — This method was devised by 
Professor C. L. Parsons, of the New Hampshire Ag- 
ricultural Experiment Station, and published in the 
report of that station for 1888. This method made 
use of caustic soap and a solution of soap and alcohol 
to destroy the milk solids, after which the fat was 
dissolved in gasoline. A measured quantity of the 
gasoline solution of fat was then taken, the gaso- 
line evaporated from it and the fat carefully dried. 
The free fat was then measured in a scale, and by 
means of a calculation, the percentage of fat deter- 
mined. This method gave very good results in the 
hands of several different operators. It, perhaps, 
required a little more delicate manipulation than 
some of the others, and it was considerably more 
complicated than Short's method. 

The Iowa Station test. — This test was invented by 
Professor George E. Patrick, the chemist of the Iowa 



Bahcock Test 91 

Agricultural Experiment Station, and published in 
Bulletin No. 8, February, 1890, of the Iowa Experi- 
ment Station. In this test the solids of the milk 
were destroyed by a mixture of acetic, sulphuric and 
hydrochloric acids, and the fat brought to the sur- 
face by boiling. The test was made in a flask with 
a narrow graduated neck. A measured quantity of 
milk was put in the flask, a suflicient amount of 
the acids added, and the whole boiled for ten or fif- 
teen minutes. The Iowa Station test was a great 
improvement upon any that preceded it in point of 
simplicity, accuracy and length of time required. 

Cochran^ s method. — This method was invented by 
C. B. Cochran, of the Pennsylvania State Board of 
Health, and published in the Journal of Analytical 
Chemistry, Vol. III., page 381. In this method 
the solids of the milk other than the fat were de- 
stroyed by the use of a mixture of acetic and sul- 
phuric acids, aided by boiling. When the milk 
solids were thus completely disintegrated, the fat was 
brought to the surface by the aid of ether, and then 
the whole mass further boiled until the ether was all 
evaporated. The clear melted fat was then meas- 
ured by transferring it to a vessel with a gradu- 
ated neck. The Cochran method was simple in 
details, but required rather delicate manipulation in 
transferring the melted fat from one vessel to an- 
other. It, however, gave very good results in a 
comparatively short time. 

The Babcock test. — This test was invented by 
Dr. S. M. Babcock, chemist of the Wisconsin Agri- 



92 Milk and Its Products 

cultural Experiment Station, and published in Bul- 
letin No. 24, July, 1890. In point of simplicitj', 
accuracy, ease of manipulation and time required, 
this test is so much better than any that have pre- 
ceded or followed it that it is now practicallj- the 
only one in use. To destroy the solids other than 
the fat, Dr. Babcock makes use of a single rea- 
gent, commercial sulphuric acid, of a specific gravity 
of 1.82, and to separate the fat from the remain- 
ing contents of the test bottle centrifugal force is 
used, hot water being added to bring the contents 
of the flask np to the graduated part. The test is 
made in a small flask with a narrow graduated neck. 

The Beimling test. — This method of testing milk 
was devised by Messrs. Leffman and Beam, and is 
sometimes known under their name, though the ap- 
paratus was patented by H. F. Beimling, and intro- 
duced under his name. The Beimling test was in- 
troduced in the j^ear 1890, and was essentially like 
the Babcock test, the exception being that instead 
of a single reagent two were used, one ordinary 
commercial sulphuric acid, as in the Babcock test, 
and the other a mixture of amyl alcohol and com- 
mercial hydrochloric acid. Largely because of the 
greater inconvenience of using two reagents, the 
Beimling test has fallen into disuse. 

Tests introduced since the Bahcock test. — Two or 
three tests differing but slightly from the Babcock 
have been introduced since. One of these is known 
as Gerber's method, the invention of a German 
chemist. The form of the testing bottles differs 



Bahcock Test 



93 



somewhat from that used by Dr. Babcock ; less 
whirling is required, and the same reagents are 
used as in the case of the Beimling. The DeLaval 




Fig. 12. Hand centrifugal for Babeook test. 

Separator Companj^ has also introduced an appara- 
tus for testing milk which is known as the butyrom- 
eter. In this test a single reagent, sulphuric acid, 
is used to set free the fat. The form of the ap- 



94 Milk and Its Products 

paratus is different from the Babcock test, a much 
higher speed of whirling is used, a smaller sample 
of milk is taken, and the fat is read in a solid 
instead of a liquid form. 

DETAILS OF THE BABCOCK TEST 

The apparatus used in testing milk by the Bab- 
cock method consists of a centrifugal machine, three 
pieces of glassware and commercial sulphuric acid. 

The centrifugal machine. — Many forms of centri- 
fugal machines are in use, almost every manufacturer 
having his own particular style. It is essential that 
the centrifugal should be substantially made ; that it 
should run smoothly and steadily, either loaded or 
empty, and that it should be capable of developing a 
speed of 900 revolutions per minute, with a wheel 
20 inches in diameter. The centrifugals so made 
may be driven either by hand, electric, or steam 
power. In the hand- power machines, the motion is 
transmitted both by belts and by friction cogs; in 
the latter case it is essential that care be taken to 
prevent loss of motion through the friction cogs be- 
coming worn. 

In the centrifugals driven by steam turbines, or 
jets of steam delivered against the circumference of 
the revolving wheel, it is much better that the 
steam be applied at some little distance from the 
revolving bottles, otherwise too great a degree of 
heat may be developed in the machine. Woll has 
shown* that, in those steam turbines in which 

* Hoard's Dairyman, March 9, 1900: vol. 31, p. 75. 



The Babcock Test Glassware 



95 



steam is introduced into the bottle chamber or 
where the cover fits so tightly that no cold air 
enters the chamber during the whirling ; the bottles 
are often heated to such a degree that the reading 
is made too large because of the expansion of the 
fat at the high temperature. The fat should be read 
at a temperature of 110° F., 
but up to 140° F. the expan- 
sion is not sufficient to cause 
material error. When, how- 
ever, the temperature rises to 
200° F. or thereabout, as fre- 
quently occurs under the con- 
ditions named above, the error 
due to the expan- 
sion of the fat may 
amount to .15 to 
.3 per cent. In all 
such cases the bot- 
tles should be al- 
lowed to cool to at 
least 140° F. before 
reading. Those cen- 
trifugals are most 
satisfactory in which provision is made for the bottles 
to assume a perfectly horizontal position when in mo- 
tion and a perfectly perpendicular one when at rest. 
The glassware. — The glassware consists of a flask 
or test bottle in which the -determination is made, 
a graduated pipette for measuring the milk, and a 
short graduated glass cylinder for measuring the 




Fig. 13. Steam turbine centrifugal for 
Babeoek test. (See opposite page.) 



96 



Milk and Its Prodticts 



acid. The most essential feature of the glassware 
is that it should be accurately graduated. This in 
general can be secured l)y always procuring the 
glassware from a reliable manufacturer or dealer, 




Fig. 14. Forms of Babcock test bottles ; a, ordinary bottle for whole 
milk ; b, bottle for skim milk, using doiible charge of milk 

c, Ohlsson, or "B. & W." double-necked bottle for skim milk 

d, e, bottles for testing cream ; /, bottle with detachable neck 
g, h, detachable necks for butter and cream. 



though suspected glassware may be tested with com- 
paratively little difficulty. The neck of the ordinary 
test bottle is graduated from to 10, each divi- 
sion being subdivided into five parts. The gradua- 
tion from to 10 will contain a volume of melted 



Testing Butter, Cheese and Cream 97 

milk fat equivalent to 10 per cent of the weight of 
the milk taken. Each subdivision of the scale, 
therefore, represents .2 of 1 per cent. The capa- 
city of the graduated portion of the neck is two 
cubic centimeters. The specific gravity of melted 
milk fat at a temperature of 120° F. is assumed to 
be .9. The two cubic centimeters will, therefore, 
weigh 1.8 grams, and in order that the percentage 
of fat read off shall be percentage by weight and 
not by volume, 18 grams of milk must be taken. 
But milk has an average specific gravity of 1.032, 
therefore 18 grams of milk will be contained in 
17.44 cubic centimeters. Two cubic centimeters of 
melted milk fat is, therefore, 10 per cent by weight 
of 17.44 cubic centimeters of average milk. It 
has been found by trial that a pipette of the or- 
dinary form graduated at 17.6 cubic centimeters 
will deliver slightly less than 17.5 cubic centimeters 
of milk. The graduation of the ordinary pipette 
should, therefore, be 17.6 cubic centimeters. A 
little less acid than milk is ordinarily required, and 
the acid measure is graduated at 17.5 cubic centi- 
meters, though the amount of acid actually used 
may readily vary two or three c-ubic centimeters 
either way from this point. 

The fat in the various products of milk may 
be as readily determined by means of this test as 
fat in the milk itself, and for these determinations 
various forms of special apparatus have been de- 
vised. (Fig. 14.) For testing cream, bottles with a 
capacity greater than 10 per cent are in use. Of 



98 Milk and Its Products 

these there are two forms. In one there is a bulb 
in the middle of the neck, and graduations above 
and below. Ordinarily the lower graduations have a 
capacity of 5 per cent, the bulb a capacity of 10 
per cent, and the upper graduations a capacity of 
10 per cent. The use of this form of bottle re- 
quires that when the fat is read off the bulb should 
always be completely full, and the upper and lower 
surfaces of the fat rest on the upper and lower 
graduations respectively. Another form of cream 
test bottle has a neck much wider than that used 
for ordinary milk testing. Bottles of this form have 
a capacity up to 35 per cent, or even more. The 
graduations are usually not closer than .5 of 1 per 
cent. This form does away with the awkwardness 
of the bulb in the center, but it is not possible 
to read the column of fat to so small a fraction, 
usually to not less than .5 of 1 per cent. For 
testing cream, particularly cream that is rich in fat, 
a special pipette is necessary. The specific gravity 
of cream containing 25 per cent of fat or over is 
nearly that of water, and in testing cream of this 
quality a pipette of 18 instead of 17.6 cubic cen- 
timeters capacity is used. For testing skim -milk, 
where it is desirable to read the small fractions of 
1 per cent, two forms of bottles have been devised. 
In one, two pipettes full of milk are used, and the 
graduations have one -half the ordinary value ; in the 
other form, the bottle has two necks, one of ordi- 
nary width for the introduction of the milk and acid, 
and the other an extremely narrow one, in which 



Calibrating the Glassware 99 

the fat is measured. With this last it is possible 
to read easily to .01 of 1 per cent. 

The fat in the solid milk products, as butter and 
cheese, may also be conveniently determined by the 
Babcock test. Since butter or cheese cannot be 
measured, it is necessary that the sample to be 
tested be weighed. Balances sensitive to .1 of a 
gram are sufficiently delicate. Either 18 grams of 
the substance may be weighed, in which case the 
percentage of fat is read directly from the bottle ; 
or, what is more convenient, any amount from 4 to 
8 grams may be taken. In the latter case, the 
observed reading of fat bears the same proportion 
to the percentage of fat in the substance taken that 
the weight of the sample taken bears to 18 ; and the 
percentage is found by multiplying the observed read- 
ing by 18 and dividing the result by the weight of 
the sample taken. 

In testing butter and cheese, it is convenient to 
use the bottles with detachable necks. A little 
water should be added to the bottle before the 
acid is put in, to aid in the solution of cheese. 

Calibration of glassware. — The correctness of the 
graduation of the glassware may be tested with more 
or less accuracy according to the means at hand. 
The bottles are all graduated on the assumption 
that the tubes are of uniform caliber. The and 
10 points are determined experimentally, and the in- 
tervening space equally divided into 50 divisions 
with a dividing engine. The spaces should, there- 
fore, be of uniform size, and if the eye can detect 



100 Milk and Its Products 

any variation in the size of the spaces such bottles 
should be discarded. Bottles inaccurate in this 
respect are seldom met with now. When the test 
was first introduced they were of frequent occur- 
rence. Bottles may be readily tested with a pipette 
of 2 c. c* capacity. Fill the bottle carefully with 
water to the point, wipe out the neck carefull}', 
and drop in exactly 2 c. c. of water. It should 
just fill the neck to the top of the graduation. 
If delicate balances are at hand, the bottle may be 
weighed full of distilled or clean rain water to the 
point, and then again filled to the 10 point. 
The difference in weight should be exactly; 2 grams. 
The -calibration will be still more accurate if mer- 
cury instead of water is used ; 2 c. c. of mercury 
may be measured out, or, what is still better, 
weighed. The specific gravity of mercury is 13.59 ; 
two c. c. will, therefore, weigh 27.18 grams. This 
weighed or measured quantity of mercury is intro- 
duced into a dry bottle, a close-fitting plug is then 
inserted into the neck of the bottle exactly to the 
top of the graduation, the bottle is then inverted ; 
the mercury should exactly fill the graduated space. 
The same portion of mercury can then be .used to 
test another bottle, and with care to have the 
bottles dry, and to see that all of the mercury is 
transferred each time, a large number of bottles can 
be easily and quickly calibrated. 

The pipettes are best tested by weighing a 
pipette full of either water or mercury ; the former 

* Cubic centimeter. See metric system < in Appendix. 



Precautions in Sampling Milk 101 

should weigh 17.6 grams, the latter 239 grams. 
Any bottle or pipette that varies more than 2 per 
cent from the standard should be discarded. 

Sampling the milk. — The accuracy of the test 
depends wholly upon getting an accurate sample of 
the milk to be analyzed. A part of the fat so 
readily separates from the milk in the form of 
cream that milk ' cannot stand even for a short 
time without the upper layer becoming richer and 
the lower layers poorer in fat. Even in milk 
freshly drawn from the cow, that in the upper part 
of the pail will be considerably richer than that 
below. The first step, then, in sampling milk is 
that it should be evenly and thoroughly mixed. 
This is best brought about by pouring from one 
vessel to another : but if the milk has stood over 
night and a layer of tough cream formed, the par- 
ticles of cream will not be thoroughly mixed by a 
single pouring from one vessel to another. In 
all such cases, the sampling must not be done 
until all visible portions of cream have disappeared 
in the mass of the milk. Various forms of sam- 
pling tubes or "milk thieves" have been devised for 
taking . samples of milk. They serve the purpose 
fairly well, but are not to be depended upon in 
comparison with a thorough agitation of the milk. 

Where the previous night's milk is carried to the 
factory, the agitation enroute and the stirring inci- 
dent to pouring from the carrying can into the 
weigh can are ordinarilj^ sufficient to cause a pretty 
complete mixture of the milk : but in cold weather 



102 Milk and Its Products 

it will frequently be noticed that the cream is not 
thoroughly broken up. Under such conditions, extra 
precautions must be taken to secure perfect sam- 
pling. 

Composite sampling. — In testing milk at factories, 
it is more convenient to take a sample every day, 
and make one test of the mixed samples at the end 
of a week, ten days or two weeks. In order to do 
this, it is necessary to provide a suitable receptacle 
for the milk of each patron. ( Pint lightning -top 
fruit jars or milk bottles, or glass - stoppered sample 
bottles, are most convenient. ) To these bottles is 
added each day a small portion of each patron's 
milk, together with some preservative for preventing 
the milk from souring. The preservatives in com- 
mon use are bichromate of potash, corrosive subli- 
mate, and milk preservaline. Caustic potash and 
soda may also be used. Neumann* claims to have 
had as good results with sodium nitrate as with 
bichromate of potash. Most of these substances are 
poisons, and render the milk unfit for use ; the jar 
should, therefore, be plainly labeled. For this purpose 
colored corrosive sublimate is now in almost universal 
use. It gives a distinct color to the milk, and only a 
small quantity of it is necessary to prevent the milk 
from souring. Whatever preservative is employed 
should only be used in quantity sufficient to keep 
the milk from thickening. Of the bichromate of 
potash, an amount sufficient to color the milk a bright 
lemon yellow is all that is necessary. In taking 

* Milch Zeitung, vol. xxii. p. 528. 



Measuring the Milk 103 

composite samples, an amount proportionate to the 
amount of milk delivered should be taken each day. 
This is conveniently done by the use of the Scovell 
Aliquot Milk Sampler, which, besides serving this 
purpose, gives the advantages of a milk thief in that 
it; takes milk from all parts of the vessel. Where 
the milk varies only a few pounds from day to 
day, good results may be obtained by taking a uni- 
form amount of milk for the sample each day, but 
where the variation in quantitj^ is considerable, 
aliquot samplers are much to be preferred » 

Mahing the test. — In preparing to make the test, 
the same care must be used that the sample shall 
be thoroughly mixed and perfectly uniform, that 
was taken in mixing the milk when the sample 
was drawn. In measuring the milk, the pipette 
should either be perfectly dry, or rinsed out with 
the milk to be tested immediately before measur-, 
ing the assay. Where a large number of samples 
are to be tested, the latter is found to be the better 
practice. The greatest care should be taken that the 
milk is accurately measured. The lower end of 
the pipette should be placed about midway of the 
sample of milk and the pipette filled by gentle 
suction at the upper end. The milk should be 
drawn into the tube above the mark on the neck, 
and the end of the forefinger quickly placed over 
the end of the pipette, the pipette being steadied 
by the thumb and second and third fingers ; hold- 
ing it now on a level with the eye between the eye 
and the light, the pressure on the forefinger 



104 Milk and Its Products 

should be gradually relaxed and the milk allowed 
to flow out of the lower end drop by drop until 
the upper edge of the milk rests exactly upon the 
graduated mark on the side of the pipette. The 
milk is then transferred to the test bottle, and this 
should always be done by placing the end of the 
pipette against the side of the neck of the bottle, 
relaxing the pressure of the forefinger gently at 
first, allowing the milk to flow down the side of 
the neck. If this is not done there is danger that 
the neck will become clogged, and a part of the 
milk be blown out by the escaping air. When 
all of the milk has flowed from the pipette, the last 
few drops should be gently blown into the neck of 
the test bottle. The utmost care must be taken 
that all of the milk is transferred from the pipette 
to the test bottle, and none allowed to escape. 

The acid. — The next step is the addition of the 
acid. The acid should be put into the test bottle in 
such a way that it will rinse down any milk that 
has adhered to the sides of the neck, and pass be- 
tween the milk and the glass in reaching the bot- 
tom of the bottle. As soon as the acid is added, 
the milk and acid should be shaken together with a 
gentle rotary motion until all of the curd is com- 
pletely dissolved, care being taken that no particles 
of curd are thrown into the neck of the bottle. 
The amount of acid used should be about the same 
in volume as the milk, depending somewhat upon" 
its strength. Ordinary commercial sulphuric acid 
with a specific gravity of 1.82 will require about 



Finishing the Test 105 

17.5 cubic centimeters to completely dissolve 17.6 
cubic centimeters of milk. If the acid is too weak 
the curd will not be completely dissolved, and will 
appear as a curdy, fiocculent precipitate mixed with 
the lower part of the column of fat. If the acid 
is too strong, some of the solids of the milk will 
be charred, and will appear as dark -colored, fioc- 
culent particles, either mixed with the fat or im- 
mediately under them, when the test is completed. 
Slight differences in the strength of the acid may be 
overcome by adding a little more or a little less, ac- 
cording as it is too weak or too strong, but satis- 
factory results cannot be depended upon unless the 
acid is of the right strength; viz., 1.82 sp. gr. 
Convenient hydrometers may be secured for a tri- 
fling amount, so that any one may be certain of the 
strength of his acid. The sulphuric acid should 
be kept tightly corked in a glass - stoppered bottle, 
because when exposed to the air, it takes up water 
rapidly, and soon becomes too weak. While it is 
not necessary that the sulphuric acid should be chemi- 
cally, pure, some of the cheaper grades of commer- 
cial acid often contain impurities that seriously 
affect the results, causing black specks to appear in 
the neck of the bottle. A reasonably pure commer- 
cial acid should always be used, and can be secured 
at a trifling cost above the impurer forms. 

Whirling. — When the acid has been added and 
thoroughly mixed with all of the samples, they are 
put into the centrifugal machine and whirled steadilj' 
for five minutes. At the end of this time the ma- 



106 Milh and Its Products 

chine is stopped, and the bottles are filled with 
warm water to the bottom of the neck. They are 
then whirled a second time for two minutes, when 
water is again added up to about the 8 per cent 
mark on the neck of the bottle, after 
which they are given a whirl for one min- 
ute. The bottles are then taken out and 
cread as rapidly as possible. 

Reading. — The reading should be taken 
at a temperature between 110° and 140° 
F., at which temperatures the fat will be 
completely fluid. The test should be made 
in a room at a temperature not less than 
70 F., or if the room is much colder 
some means should be taken to prevent 
the bottles from becoming cool until all are 
read. Much skill and facility can be 
attained by practice in reading the bottles 
^'"rapidly and accurately. In reading the 
bottles, the reading should be made as 
shown in the diagram, the lower reading 
Fig. 15. Dia- f rom thc cxtrcmc lower curved surface 
Sr Babcock (a, Fig. 15), and the upper reading from 
the reading the cxtrcmc top of the columu of fat, 
made be- (&, not c. Fig. 15), the difference between 
points a-h, the lowcr and upper reading giving the 
percentage of fat. The reason for read- 
ing in this way is that a small amount of residual 
fat is left mixed with the other fluids in the bottle. 
This is composed of the smaller globules of fat, and 
the amount is practically uniform, and has been 



Estimation of Solids not Fat 107 

found to represent about the amount occupied by 
the curved surfaces in the neck of the bottle, 
due to the capillary attraction between the fat and 
the glass. 

Cleaning the glassware. — Good results cannot be 
secured unless the glassware is kept clean and 
bright. This can easily be done with very little 
trouble. As soon as the bottles are read, and while 
they are still hot, the contents should be emptied 
out. The hot acid and water will carry out with 
it the larger part of the fat in the neck of the 
bottle. The emptied bottle should then be rinsed 
once in warm water and once in hot water containing 
some alkali, either washing soda or any of the va- 
rious washing powders, and then rinsed with either 
warm or cold water until they are perfectly clean. 
With these precautions no difficulty will be expe- 
rienced in keeping the bottles clean and bright. 

By the use of the lactometer in connection with 
the percentage of fat, a close approximation to the 
percentage of total solids, or solids not fat, may be 
made. Numerous formula for this purpose have 
been devised. Their application is explained and il- 
lustrated in Part A of the Appendix. 



CHAPTER V 

THE FERMENTS AND FERMENTATIONS OF MILK, 
AND THEIR CONTROL 

Milk, when it is first drawn, is a limpid fluid 
with a slight odor, mildly sweetish taste, and faint 
alkaline reaction. In fact, milk often shows the 
amphoteric reaction ; that is, it will give the acid 
reaction with blue litmus paper and the alkaline 
reaction with red. Almost immediately after it is 
drawn, milk begins to undergo a change, and within 
a short time will show a distinct acid reaction. 
The degree of acidity increases with the age of the 
milk. Soon changes begin in the other milk con- 
stituents, and in a comparatively short time, the de- 
composition is so great that the milk can no longer 
be used for food. The sugar is the first constit- 
uent of the milk to undergo change, afterwards 
the albuminoids are attacked, and lastly the fats. 
These changes are not due to any instability of the 
organic compounds in the milk, but to the effect 
of various vegetable germs that gain access to the 
milk after it is secreted, and, living and growing 
in the milk, bring about the changes mentioned. 
These changes are called fermentations, and the 
agents that bring them about ferments. Milk con- 
taining no germs of fermentation, or milk from 

(108) 



General Characters of Bacteria 109 

which they have all been removed, is said to be 
sterile. The germs found in milk belong to the 
lowest orders of the vegetable kingdom. Most of 
them are included in the bacteria, although many 
yeasts and moulds are frequentlj^ found in milk. 

The bacteria. — The bacteria are extremely minute 
bodies consisting of a single cell filled with protoplasm. 
They are of three general forms, — spherical (coccus) ; 
rod -like or cylindrical (bacillus), and curved or wavy 
(spirillum). They reproduce by fission; that is, the 
cell elongates slightly in the direction of its longer 
axis, and a partition is formed across the cell trans- 
versely, and two individuals exist where there was 
but one before. These may break away and form 
separate bacteria, but often they are kept together 
in various ways. Many forms are endowed with 
motion, and all require a liquid or semi -liquid me- 
dium for growth and development, though many 
YHdiy exist for long periods of time in a dry condi- 
tion. Like other plants, in order to grow and de- 
velop, the bacteria must have suitable food. They 
require for their sustenance carbon, hydrogen, oxy- 
gen and nitrogen, together with small amounts 
of mineral matters. Organic compounds are more 
available for food supply than simple inorganic 
salts. Substances like sugar and the .various al- 
buminous compounds are admirably suited for their 
food. In ordinary milk nearly all kinds of bacteria 
find an adequate and easily available food supply 
in a medium favorable to their growth, so that not 
onlj^ the forms of bacteria ordinarily found in milk, 



110 Milk and Its Products 

but almost any others, will readily live and grow 
should they gain access to milk. Nearly all forms 
of bacteria, are sensitive to conditions of tempera- 
ture. The range of temperature in which they 
thrive the best and grow most rapidly is rather 
narrow, though there is a considerable range above 
or below, in which they will still grow and develop. 
The temperature at which any given germ will grow 
most rapidly is called the optimum temperature, and 
the optimum temperature varies widely with -the 
various classes of ' organisms, though by far the 
larger number of bacteria find their optimum point 
between 75° to 100° F., and a higher temperature 
not only stops their growth, but if sufficiently high 
kills them outright. A temperature of 135° F. kills a, 
large number of germs. Very few are able to live 
above a temperature of 180°, and none can with- 
stand the temperature of boiling water, 212°, for 
more than a few minutes. If heat is accompanied 
by moisture it is much more effective, so that heat 
applied in the form of live steam is the best means 
of destroying the life of these germs. Under the 
influence of cold the germs become inactive, and 
some kinds are killed by a sufficient degree of cold, 
but very many kinds are able to withstand any 
degree of cold possible to be produced for long pe- 
riods of time. 

Under certain conditions bacteria are able to as- 
sume an inactive condition, or spore form. In do- 
ing this, the protoplasm shrinks into a hard, glisten- 
ing mass, and contracts toward one end of the cell, 



Distribution of Bacteria 111 

or the cell wall thickens and encloses the proto- 
plasm. In the spore condition the bacteria are in-^ 
active, bnt are able to endure much greater extremes 
of heat, cold or moisture than when active. When 
the conditions qf growth become again favorable, the 
spore again becomes active, or is said to germinate, 
and the vital processes are resumed. 

Bacteria are widely distributed through nature. 
In fact, there are very few places where they may 
not be found. They are so light and small that 
they float readily in the atmosphere, particularly when 
accompanied by particles of dust. They are found 
in all rivers and streams, upon the surface of the 
earth, and upon all organic matter. In fact, they 
are universally distributed. By far the larger num- 
ber are not only perfectly harmless but positively 
beneficial. They serve to transform dead organic 
matter into its original condition, and so act as 
scavengers. Others, like the milk ferments, bring 
about specific changes in some definite substances, 
while still others, a large class, are the specific 
causes of various diseases in men and animals. 

Presence of bacteria in milk. — In ordinary milk, 
bacteria are always present in large numbers. These 
gain access to the milk from the atmosphere, from 
the bodies of the animal and the milker, through 
contact with the vessels into which the milk is 
drawn, and to some extent through the udder of the 
animal. The milk when secreted is sterile. So 
far as is known, no bacteria can pass through the 
digestive organs and blood vessels of the animal 



112 Milk and Its Products 

and appear in the milk. If the udder is the seat 
of disease due to the growth of bacteria, such bac- 
teria may find their way into the milk ducts and 
infect the milk. In one other way the animal may 
be said to be a source of infection with bacteria. 
The end of the teat of the animal is always more 
or less moist. Bacteria coming in contact with 
such surface, moistened with milk, find there not 
only food in proper form for their growth, but a 
temperature sufficient to make them active. They 
begin to multiply, and, working their way through 
the orifice of the teat, find milk in larger supply, and 
a temperature still more favorable for their growth. 
They increase and multiply, under such conditions, 
with remarkable rapidity, and so work their way 
upward through the milk cistern and into the larger 
milk ducts, so that the milk first drawn from the 
animal always contains a greater or less number of 
bacteria. For this reason it is not an easy matter 
to secure perfectly sterile milk direct from the cow, 
though with great care in disinfecting the udder 
and removing the larger part of the milk from it, 
perfectly sterile milk has been obtained. 

Kinds of bacteria in milk. — Almost any of the 
known forms of bacteria may live and grow and oc- 
casionally be found in milk. Normally, however, com- 
paratively few forms of bacteria are present. The 
greater part of these are forms which cause various 
changes in the constituents of milk, and are known 
as ferments, and the changes which they induce as 
fermentations. Beside these fermentations, there may 



Kinds of Milk Fermentations 113 

be found in the milk the bacteria of anj- germ dis- 
ease with which the animal may be aflfticted, or which 
may be carried into the milk through the atmosphere, 
the water used in cleansing utensils, or the persons 
of individuals suffering from the disease. 

The fermentations of milk. — The normal fermenta- 
tions to which milk is subject may be conveniently 
divided into three classes. First, those which feed 
upon and cause changes in the milk-sugar, known as 
lactic fermentations. Second, those that feed upon 
and cause changes in the albuminoids of the milk ; 
these in turn are of two classes, peptogenic and pu- 
trefactive. Third, those which attack the fats, and 
are known as butyric fermentations. Besides these, 
which may be called normal fermentations, in that 
they will easily occur in any sample of milk if left to 
itself, there are a large number of other fermentations 
which may be called abnormal, from the fact that 
they occur only in isolated localities, or from time 
to time. These abnormal fermentations include one 
which causes the casein of milk to coagulate without 
the development of lactic acid, known as sweet curd- 
ling ; another Tvhich causes a peculiarly ropy or slimy 
condition of certain constituents of milk ; still an- 
other that results in the formation of an intensely 
bitter product in the milk ; an alcoholic fermenta- 
tion, and several fermentations which result in the 
production of various colors, collectively known as 
chromogenic fermentations. An illustration of this 
class is seen in the well-known "bloody bread," 
which is caused by the growth of Bacillus prodigiosus. 
H 



114 Milk and Its Products 

This germ is occasionally found in milk, and imparts 
to it a red color which is easily confounded with 
the red color due to the presence of blood from a 
wounded udder. A single germ rarely occasions 
more than a single fermentation. Often two or more 
are combined in the fermentation, and in many cases 
there are a large number of different germs that 
bring about the same fermentation. This is notably 
true of the lactic and putrefactive fermentations. 
The effect of the various fermentations is such as to 
destroy the value of the milk as such, if they are al- 
lowed to proceed to any great length ; but the manu- 
facture of butter is greatly aided by many of these 
fermentations, and the presence of certain germs is 
absolutely indispensable to the manufacture of cheese. 
Relation of milk bacteria to the human system. — By 
far the greater number of germs ordinarily found in 
milk are absolutely harmless, and may be taken into 
the human system in large numbers with perfect 
impunity, the germs of specific disease excepted, and 
with these latter it is the products formed from their 
growth rather than the germs themselves from which 
danger comes. There are probably no germs normally 
found in milk that may be classed as harmful. This 
is also true of a considerable number of fermen- 
tation products resulting from the growth of the 
germs in the milk. Many of these products give 
to the milk or its product an unpleasant taste or 
physical appearance, but are otherwise perfectly 
harmless. There are, however, certain germs which 
produce a fermentation which results in the forma- 



The Lactic Acid Germ 115 

tion of poisonous products. These products are the 
causes of the serious or even fatal results that fol- 
low the consumption of milk, cheese, ice-cream, or 
other products containing them. They are collect- 
ively known as ptomaines. To one in particular, 
that has frequently been found in cheese, the name 
tyrotoxicon (cheese -poison) has been given. They 
have been studied by Vaughn* and others, but 
their origin is still obscure. The germs producing 
these poisonous products are of comparatively in- 
frequent occurrence. 

In general, the various classes of fermentations do 
not readily take place at the same time. The active 
growth and development of one germ acts more or 
less as a retarding force upon the growth and de- 
velopment of other germs. 

Lactic fermentations. — Under this group we include 
all of those germs which, living and growing in 
milk, feed upon the sugar, causing it to change to 
lactic acid. It was formerly supposed that the forma- 
tion of lactic acid in the milk was entirely due to the 
action of a single germ, described by Hueppe, and 
called Bacillus acidi-lactici, or the lactic acid germ. 
It is now known that there are at least twenty different 
germs that may produce lactic acid, and in all prob- 
ability there are many more. The lactic acid germs 
are the most common and most numerous germs 
found in milk, and ordinarily the lactic fermentations 
are the first to take place. They begin their opera- 



* Vaughn-Novy. Ptomaines and Leucomaines, Philadelphia, 



116 Milk mid Its Products 

tions almost immediately after the milk is drawn, and 
continue until the maximum amount of lactic acid has 
been produced. In the lactic acid fermentations one 
molecule of milk-sugar (Ci2H220ii — H2O) breaks up 
into four molecules of lactic acid (CsHeOs) without 
the formation of any secondary or by-product. The 
presence of the lactic acid serves to coagulate the 
casein, so that curdling of the milk is always an 
accompaniment of the lactic fermentation after it 
has reached a certain stage. The presence of lactic 
acid is unfavorable to the growth of the ordinary 
germs of lactic fermentation, and when a certain 
amount of lactic acid has been formed (about .8 of 1 
per cent of the whole milk), th^ further develop- 
ment of lactic acid ceases. In milk of ordinary 
quality, this occurs when about one -fourth of the 
milk-sugar has been changed to lactic acid. If the 
acid be neutralized with an alkali, the fermentation 
will then proceed until another portion of milk-sugar 
has been changed, to lactic acid, showing that the 
lactic acid simply prevents the growth of the germs, 
and does not kill them. Lactic acid germs are most 
active at temperatures between 80° and 100° F.; at 
temperatures below 80° they gradually lose their ac- 
tivity, and below 50° little or no lactic acid will be 
formed. At these low temperatures they are simply 
inactive, not dead. At a temperature of 105° F., 
the lactic germs become inactive, and a large propor- 
tion of them are killed at a temperature from 135° 
to 140° F. f In milk, lactic acid fermentation means 
simply souring, and it renders the milk unfit for use, 



Putrefactive Fermentations 117 

almost wholly because the taste is unpleasant to 
the ordinary palate. A large amount of lactic acid 
is, perhaps, injurious to young and delicate or weak 
digestive organs, but ordinarily is harmless. ' Lactic 
acid fermentations are extremely important in the 
processes of both butter and cheese manufacture, 
and their relations to these processes will be dis- 
cussed in detail in the proper place. 

Fermentations affecting tJie albuminoids. — These in- 
clude ordinary putrefactive fermentations, peptogenic 
fermentations, and fermentations resulting in the for- 
mation of poisonous products. These fermentations, 
as a rule, do not thrive in the presence of a strong 
lactic fermentation, so that ordinarily they do not 
manifest themselves in milk unless the conditions are 
peculiarly favorable for their development and un- 
favorable for the development of lactic acid. Many 
of the putrefactive fermentations will go on at a 
lower temperature than the lactic fermentations do ; 
hence it is often found, when milk is kept at a low 
temperature in order to keep it from souring, that 
after a certain time it becomes bitter or foul -smell- 
ing. This condition is caused by some one of the 
characteristic putrefactive fermentations. The putre- 
factive germs also readily take on the spore form, 
and in this condition are not so readily killed by 
heat. The putrefactive fermentations usually result 
in the formation of bitter or other unpleasant flavors 
and disagreeable odors, and they are frequently ac- 
companied by a considerable evolution of gas. Pep- 
togenic fermentations are those which exert a pep- 



118 Milk and Its Products 

tonizing' or digestive action upon the albuminoids. 
By their action the casein is first coagulated, and 
finally liquefied or changed into a peptone. 

Butyric fermentations. — The butyric ferments at- 
tack the fats, and result in the formation of bu- 
tyric acid. They produce the peculiar condition 
found in cream and butter known as rancidity, and 
do not usually manifest themselves very strongly in 
the milk. 



Control of Fermentations 

Since fermentations always occur in milk that is 
kept for any considerable time, and since they exert 
so powerful an influence, not only upon the milk 
but upon the products manufactured from it, the 
question of their control is one of prime importance. 
The three chief means of such control are : First, 
prevention of infection ; second, prevention of the 
growth of germs already present ; third, destruction 
of germs already present. 

Prevention of infection. — The greatest source of 
infection comeS from the body of the animal and 
from the air of the stable. The germs are always 
present, adhering to the hair of the animal, and par- 
ticularly to any particles of dust or dirt. In order, 
then, that the animal shall not be a source of infec- 
tion, it is necessary that she be carefully curried 
and the udder, teats, flank, thighs and lower parts 
of the belly wiped off with a damp cloth immediately 



Prevention of Infection 119 

before milking. It is of course necessary, also, that 
the hands and clothes of the milker should be as 
carefully attended to in this respect as is the body of 
the cow. The bacteria find in the excrements abun- 
dant food for growth and development, and are al- 
ways found in large numbers where such excrements 
are allowed to collect ; and when dii^t of this sort ac- 
cumulates and becomes dried, the dust floating in the 
air always carries with it large numbers of germs. 
The germs are also found in large numbers accom- 
panying the dust arising from hay and other dried 
forage. This being the case, it is essential not only 
that the stable should be kept scrupulously clean, 
but that the air should be free from dust, partic- 
ularly at times w^hen milking is going on. Thor- 
oughly sweeping and then sprinkling the stable 
floors an hour or two before the milking will mate- 
rially lessen the germ content of the milk. 

Next to the stable, the dairy utensils are an im- 
portant source of infection with bacteria. They be- 
come attached to the seams and corners of the ves- 
sels, and are not dislodged even with the most careful 
cleaning, and when the fresh, warm milk is drawn 
into such vessels the germs immediately begin to grow 
and develop. The most scrupulous care must, of 
course, be taken in cleaning any vessels in which 
milk is contained, but no vessel can be considered 
safe so far as conveying germs is concerned unless 
it has been exposed to the action of live steam for 
at least three minutes, and then kept in a secure 
place until needed for use. With these precautions 



120 Milk and Its Products 

in regard to the animal, milker and utensils, milk 
may be secured with a minimum number of bacteria. 
The difference in the number of bacteria in milk so 
drawn, and in milk carelessly drawn, may easily 
amount to a difference of eighteen to twenty -four 
hours in keeping quality under like conditions. 

Holding at low temperatures. — If milk be immedi- 
ately cooled to a temperature of 40° F., or thereabouts, 
very little fermentation will go on, though it will be 
frequently found that after three or four days the 
milk or cream may have a more or less disagreeable 
flavor, due to the presence of some germs that de- 
velop slowly even at low temperatures. If low tem- 
peratures are to be depended upon as a means of 
keeping fermentations in check, it is, of course, of 
prime importance that every precaution should have 
been taken to prevent the access of germs to the 
milk in the first place. The fewer germs the milk 
contains to begin with, the more effective will low 
temperatures be as a means of preservation. With 
care in both these respects, milk or cream may be 
kept in a fresh and merchantable condition for a 
week or ten days. 

Destruction of germs in the milk. — A large number 
of chemical agents is more or less destructive to 
germ life. Many of them ai-e so violent in their 
action as to destroy the milk as well as the germs, 
but there are many which are destructive to germ 
life, with no effect upon the composition, odor or 
flavor of the milk ; but all of these without excep- 
tion are more or less injurious to the human sys- 



Antiseptics and Disinfectants 121 

tern, particularly if they are used continuously, even 
though only in small quantities. Of the compounds 
which may be used for this purpose, formalin, saly- 
cilic and boracic acids and their derivatives are un- 
doubtedly the least injurious, but their use is not 
to be recommended under any circumstances. Some 
attempts have been made to utilize the electric cur- 
rent as a means of destroying germ life in milk ; 
but they have so far proved ineffectual, and in- 
stances are reported* where electrolysis of the milk 
constituents occurred where a continuous current was 
employed. Heat, then, is the only available agent 
that can be used for the destruction of germs al- 
ready present in the milk. This destruction of germs 
in milk or any other fluid by means of heat is called 
sterilization. In order to absolutely sterilize any sub- 
stance, it is necessary that it should be subjected 
to a heat of 212° to 240° F. for one hour on each 
of three successive days. This will kill not only the 
germs that are in active growing condition, but any 
spores that may be present. A lower temperature, 
175° to 212° F., will kill actively growing germs, but 
even at this temperature chemical changes are set up 
in the milk which give rise to flavors known as 
boiled or cooked flavors, that are disagreeable to a 
large number of people. In order to overcome the 
bad effects of heating at such high temperatures 
another process, known as pasteurization, is used. 
Pasteurization.— The name is taken from Pasteur > 

*L'Industrie Laitiere, April 1896. 



122 Milh and Its Products 

who discovered and used the process in controlling 
the fermentations of wine and beer. It differs from 
sterilization only in the degree of heat used, and, in 
fact, may be properly called an incomplete or partial 
sterilization. The destructive effect of heat upon 
germ life depends both upon the degree of heat and 
the length of time to which the germs are exposed. 
A large number of germs are killed at temperatures 
from 133° to 140° F., while others are killed at tem- 
peratures varying from 150° to 165° F. These Fatter 
temperatures include the germs of all of the ordinary 
ferments and most of the germs of specific diseases , 
including that of the tubercle bacillus. Since the 
tubercle bacillus is the disease germ most likely, to be 
present, milk is ordinarily considered to be safe from 
disease germs when it has been pasteurized at a tem- 
perature sufficiently high to destroy it. This is a 
temperature of 149° F. for thirty minutes, a tem- 
perature of 155° F. for fifteen minutes, or a tempera- 
ture of 167° F. for ten minutes, and these temperatures 
have come to be looked upon as standard pasteuriz- 
ing temperatures. Milk may be heated to 165° F., 
if quickly cooled afterwards, without developing a 
boiled taste ; so that it is possible that milk be 
rendered safe from the germs of disease and free 
from the ordinary germs of fermentation without 
developing in it a boiled taste. But in order to 
pasteurize milk safely, it is necessary that means 
should be provided for cooling rapidly from the 
pasteurizing temperatures to 50° F. or below. 

Milk carefully pasteurized, as above described, will 



Apparatus for Pasteurization 123 

remain sweet thirty -six to forty -eight hours longer 
at ordinary temperatures than milk not pasteurized, 
from which germs have been excluded with ordinary 
care. 

The problem of successful pasteurization, then, 
depends upon the means of raising the milk in a 
short time to the required temperature, holding it 
there uniformly for ten or twenty minutes, and then 
cooling it rapidly to 50° or below. Several forms 
of apparatus have been devised for this purpose. 
Some of them are fairly perfect, but most of them 
are lacking in some important point. •, With the pres- 
ent activity in regard to this subject we shall un- 
doubtedly soon have much more perfect apparatuses for 
this purpose than are at present available. The per- 
fect pasteurizing machine should cover the following 
points: Quick, perfect and uniform heating of the 
milk; perfect control of the temperature; quick and, 
uniform cooling; compact form; ease of cleansing; 
absence of pumping arrangements; security against 
re -infection during the process. 

Selection of milh for pasteurization. — For the best ^ 
results in pasteurizing, it is also essential that the 
milk be as fresh and free from fermentations as 
possible. Russel and Farrington have found* that 
milk that has developed as much as .2 of 1 per 
cent of lactic acid is too sour for satisfactory re- 
sults. Inasmuch as this amount of acid cannot ^ 
readily be detected by the senses of smell or taste, 

♦Wisconsin Agr, Exp. Station, Bulls. 44 and 52, 



124 Milk and Its Products 

Farrington^s alkaline tablets offer a very convenient 
means of selecting milks that are suitable or un- 
suitable for pastuerizing purposes. For this purpose 
it is convenient to make the tablet solution (see 
Chap. X.) by dissolving one tablet in each ounce 
of water, or one tablet in 30 c. c. of water. Then 
with a cup or other convenient vessel and a small 
measure of any suitable size, the comparative acid- 
ity of different milks can be readily and quickly de- 
termined as follows : Put a measure full of milk 
into the cup and add two measures of the tablet 
solution. If the color disappears, more than .2 of 1 
per cent of lactic acid is present, and the milk is too 
sour for pasteurizing purposes. If the milk remains 
pink, less than .2 of 1 per cent of lactic acid is pres- 
ent, and the milk may be safely used. If it is 
desirable to measure the amount of acid, each meas- 
ure of solution may be roughly taken to represent 
.1 of 1 per cent of acid. Thus, if the pink color 
remains when one measure of the solution has been 
added, the milk contains .1 per cent of acid. If it 
require four measures of the solution before the pink 
color is permanent, the milk contains A per cent of 
acid. A convenient measure for this purpose is made 
by soldering a piece of stiff wire to the side of a 
No. 10 cartridge shell, after the manner of a milk- 
measuring dipper. 



CHAPTER VI 

DETEBMINATION OF BACTERIA IN MILK 

Bacteria as a measure of dirt in milk. — Since a 
chief source of contamination of milk with bacteria is 
in dirty surroundings, the relative number of bacteria 
in milk has come to be largely accepted as an index 
of its quality with regard to cleanliness. As a matter 
of fact, in certain of the higher grades of the market 
milk, notably in "certified milk," the standard of 
quality is fixed by the number of bacteria per cubic 
centimeter found in the milk, and if the number so 
found exceeds a certain amount the milk cannot be 
graded as "certified." For these reasons it is neces- 
sary to make frequent determinations of the bacterial 
content of milk. This is best and most accurately 
done by a trained bacteriologist in a well-appointed 
and equipped laboratory. However, the simple deter- 
mination of. the number of bacteria in a given amount 
of milk is not a difiBcult operation, nor does it require 
a very elaborate or expensive equipment. There are 
reasons why a dairyman, particularly one producing 
certified milk, should have the means at hand for 
making his own determination of the bacterial content 
of his milk, the chief reason being that it enables 
him to control the conditions and work from day to 

(125) 



126 Milk and Its Products 

day, so as to check carelessness in any place, and 
materially reduce the chances for contamination. 

The outline of methods and apparatus given here- 
with will enable anyone with a little skill and inge- 
nuity to make bacterial determinations sufficiently 
accurate for purposes of control in the production of 
high-grade milk. 

The laboratory. — In fitting out a small laboratory 
for the determination of bacteria in milk, much can 
be left to the ingenuity of the individual. It is neces- 
sary to have the work done in a place as free from 
dust and other contamination as possible. So, if the 
room has to be used also for other purposes, it is well 
to shut off or enclose with glass a small portion to be 
used for this work alone, and in which the sterile 
glassware, media and water may be kept, so that 
everything is ready and convenient for use at any time. 

Apparatus, — In choosing a sterilizer for glassware, 
any kind of an oven fitted with a thermometer, and 
in which a temperature of 150° C. can be maintained, 
will do. For sterilizing media and water, an auto- 
clave, that is, a steam sterilizer which is able to main- 
tain a pressure of at least ten pounds per square inch, 
is most convenient; there are also on the market 
"high altitude " or Denver cookers that are satisfactory. 
If neither of these is available, steamers or simply 
boiling water may be used. It must be remembered, 
however, that, unless pressure is used, a greater period 
of heat is necessary, and that with substances such as 
gelatin and milk, which will not stand such treatment, 
the intermittent method of sterilization must be used. 



Preparation of Media 127 

The lists of glassware necessary for plating one 
sample of milk and for preparing one liter of medium, 
together with the necessary materials and apparatus, 
are given at the end of this chapter, the actual amounts 
being left to the discretion of the individual. They 
may be readily secured from any firm dealing in such 
materials. 

Some sort of an incubator is necessary. Very satis- 
factory incubators are specially built for bacteriolog- 
ical purposes, but, if it is necessary to economize, it 
is possible to convert a poultry incubator for the pur- 
pose, or a home-made incubator may be cheaply and 
simply built by anyone with a little ingenuity. An 
asbestos -lined box fitted with an electric light and 
thermostat is very satisfactory. The one factor neces- 
sary is a constant temperature of 37° C. or 98.6 F. 

Media. — It is possible to obtain agar or gelatine 
already prepared from various bacteriological labora- 
tories. If, however, it is found necessary to make 
the medium, the following directions may be used: 
As a basis for this medium use nutrient 'bouillon, or 
Iroth. This may be made either from the ground 
beef or beef extract. Directions for making the bouil- 
lon from ground beef are found in Moore's Laboratory 
Directions for Beginners in Bacteriology. It is much 
easier to use beef extract and, for general purposes, 
entirely satisfactory. 

Measure out the following: 

Water 1 liter 

Liebig's Extract of Beef 3 grains 

Peptone (Wittes) 10 grams 



128 Milk and lis Products 

Place in the agate cooking -pan and weigh. Dissolve 
carefully at a temperature not over 150° F. (60° C.) 

It has been found tha-t organisms develop best at 
a reaction slightly but distinctly acid. That is, the 
media should be + 1 per cent to phenol phthalein. In 
order to standardize the media to this degree of 
acidity, take 5 c. c. of bouillon, and place in a por- 
celain evaporating dish or white cup with about 45 c. c. 
of warm water. Add a few drops of phenol phthalein 
(8 per cent dry in 50 per cent alcohol). This is a 
solution which is colorless when acid, but tinted pink 
when alkaline. Stir and add to the solution in the 
cup enough of the twentieth normal sodium hydroxid 
solution from a burette to give it a clear, bright pink 
color. This is the amount needed to neutralize 5 c. c. 
of the bouillon. In order to bring the entire amount 
to +1 per cent, subtract 1 from the amount of twen- 
tieth normal sodium hydroxide used; multiply this by 
the number of cubic centimeters of bouillon, and 
divide by 100. This result represents the amount of 
normal sodium hydroxide to be added. After adding 
the normal hydroxide, test the reaction again. It 
should take 1 c. c. of twentieth normal sodium hydrox- 
ide to bring a pink color with 5 c. c. of bouillon. 
This process is called titration. 

After obtaining the desired acidity, boil briskly for 
twenty minutes, restore weight, with distilled water, 
cool and filter through filter paper into sterile flasks. 
The bouillon is now ready to be made into either gela- 
tine or agar, or it can be sterilized and set aside 
until needed. (See directions for sterilizing media.) 



sterilization of Media 129 

Lactose agar. — To 1 liter of bouillon add 1.5 per 
cent of agar (15 grams). Allow the agar to soak lor 
one-half hour. Record weight, then add 10 grams of 
lactose. Steam for 20 minutes, cool to 60° C; titrate 
to + 1 per cent acidity, add the white of an egg 
shaken up in 30 c. c. of water and steam for 20 to 30 
minutes; then boil until clear, taking care not to 
burn it. Restore weight by adding water, then filter 
through cheese-cloth and absorbent cotton. The agar 
should be clear and of a yellowish straw color. Fill 
the test tubes, 10 c. c. to a tube, plug them with 
cotton and then sterilize them. 

Gelatin. — To one liter of bouillon add 12 per cent 
of a good grade of gelatin. Weigh the dish and 
material. Dissolve the gelatin and titrate to 1 per 
cent acidity, boil 15 minutes, cool, add the white of 
an egg shaken with 30 c. c. of water, boil again for 
15 minutes, restore weight, and filter through cheese- 
cloth and absorbent cotton. Place in test tubes, 10 
c. c. per tube, plug and sterilize. 

Lactose gelatin. — Prepare as for gelatin in previous 
paragraph, using 15 per cent gelatin and 1 per cent 
lactose (milk sugar). In filling the tubes, use exactly 
8 c. c, if litmus is to be added, otherwise 10 c. c. per 
tube; plug and sterilize as before. 

Litmtis. — Soak 100 grams of litmus cubes in 600 
c. c. of water for 24 hours. Filter through filter 
paper and make up to original volume. Titrate the 
litmus solution so that the acidity will be the same 
as for media, viz.: +1 per cent. As it is too alka- 



130 ■ Milk and Its Products 

line, titrate against one -twentieth normal hj^drochloric 
acid, using litmus as its own indicator. (Litmus is 
blue when alkaline and red when acid.) The neutral 
point will be recognized by the blue solution turning 
reddish. If the neutral point of the solution using 
phenol phthalein as an indicator is zero, then the 
neutral point using litmus as an indicator would 
require 2.5 c. c. more acid. Therefore, in order to 
secure 1 per cent acidity to phenol phthalein, 5 c. c. 
of the litmus solution would require 1.5 c. c. of 
twentieth normal hydrochloric acid. As the litmus 
solution is always alkaline, it will require normal acid; 
the amount can be determined in the same way as in 
titrating media. Sterilize litmus the same as water. 

Normal sodium hydroxid (NaOH) and normal hydro- 
chloric acid (HCl) . — These solutions had best be bought 
from dealers. To make twentieth normal solutions, one 
part of the normal is added to 19 parts of distilled water. 

Sterilization. — In bacteriological work, it is neces- 
sary to have all glassware, utensils and media sterile, 
that is, absolutely free from organic life. It must be 
remembered that media, bottles, flasks, etc., must be kept 
plugged, otherwise they become contaminated. There- 
fore, if a flask or bottle of media or water is opened, it 
must be resterilized before using again. The methods 
of sterilizing vary for the materials to be sterilized. 

Cleaning glassware. — All glassware should be thor- 
oughly washed with some good soap or soap powder, 
rinsed in clear water, and allowed to drain. When 
dry, the test tubes, pipettes, flasks and graduated 
cylinders are r^ady to be plugged. With the forceps, 



Gleaning the Glassware 131 

pull off a piece of cottou of sufficient size to fit into 
the opening of the article to be plugged without dan- 
ger of falling out or of sticking. Put the pipettes into 
glass tubing which has been cut into lengths which 
will hold the pipettes, then plug firmly both ends of 
the tube or case. After plugging, the articles are 
ready for sterilizing. Metal boxes holding a number 
of pipettes may be used in place of glass tubes; and 
when much plating is to be done, there is economy 
of work and time in the practice, but there is greater 
possibility of the pipettes becoming contaminated. 
Place them with the petri dishes and glass bottles in 
the hot-air sterilizer or oven. Tip the stoppers of the 
glass bottles back, to prevent exploding. In many 
laboratories, dilution bottles without glass stoppers are 
used, plugs of cotton being substituted. This custom 
permits the use of cheaper bottles. These should be 
kept at a temperature of 150° C. for one hour, or 
until the cotton plugs are slightly browned. 

Water. — It is convenient to sterilize water in the 
liter flasks. Fill the flasks three -fourths full and 
plug them with cotton. If an autoclave is available, 
sterilize water for one hour at 15 pounds pressure. 
Otherwise, place the flask in boiling water, or steam 
and hold for one and a half to two hours. 

Bouillon, gelatin and agar. — Media can be. steril- 
ized in an autoclave for 20 minutes at 10 pounds pres- 
sure, or the intermittent method may be used. In 
sterlizing by this method, the flasks or tubes of media 
are steamed or placed in boiling water for 20 minutes; 
then left at room temperature for 24 hours, and 



132 Milk mid Its Prodiicts 

steamed again for 20 minutes after the material has 
reached the temperature of steam. The third day they 
are steamed again for 20 minutes. 

Procedure for plating. — Wipe off the desk or table 
with 5 per cent carbolic acid solution. Shake thor- 
oughly twenty -five times, the sample of milk. Unless 
the bacterial count of the sample is nearly known, it 
is well to make three dilutions, with two plates per 
dilution (six plates in all). The dilution should be 
large enough so that not more than one or two hun- 
dred colonies will develop on the petri dish. Thus, in 
plating fresh milk, a dilution of 1 : 100, 1 : 200 and 
1 : 1000 may be used. To make the 1 : 1000 dilution, 
measure out with a sterile pipette (care should be taken 
in drawing out the pipette from the case that the 
point touches nothing but the milk, and, if many pi- 
pettes are kept in a metal case, each pipette should be 
passed through a flame before using it) 1 c. c. of 
milk, and put it in a sterile bottle contaiiiing 99 c. c. 
of the sterilized water. Shake this thoroughly. With 
another pipette, place 1 c. c. of the solution in a 
petri dish, being careful to raise the cover of the petri 
dish only high enough to introduce the mouth of the 
pipette. Five -tenths of a cubic centimeter of this solu- 
tion would give a dilution of 1 : 200, while .1 would be 
1 : 1,000. If higher dilutions are needed, more bottles 
may be used; for instance, if a dilution of 1 : 1,000,000 
is wanted, arrange two bottles each with 99 c. c. of 
water. Place 1 c. c. of milk in the first, shake thor- 
oughly, take 1 c. c. of this dilution and place in the 
second. This is then ready to transfer to the plate. 



Plating and Counting 133 

Checks. — With a sterile pipette, place 1 c. c. of 
the dilution water in a sterile plate, and add the usual 
amount of media. Also pour 10 c. c. of media 
into a sterile, empty petri dish. If litmus is used, 
make a third check with 2 c. c. of litmus and 10 c. c. 
of the media. In this way the state of the material 
may be determined. The following scheme from the 
Iowa Bacteriological Laboratory Report will be of 
value in estimating dilutions: 

After the diluted milk is in the petri dish, if the litmus is 
wanted, add 2 c. c. with a sterile pipette. If not desired, this 
may be omitted. Melt the tubes of agar or gelatin, cool and 
maintain at a temperature of 40° C. Finally, add 10 c. c. of the 
nutrient media, either agar or gelatin as desired, being careful to 
pass the mouth of the tube through a flame before pouring it. 
Give the dish a revolving motion, to mix the diluted milk and 
media, and then allow it to harden. Agar should be incubated 
at 37° C. for forty-eight hours, while gelatin needs a temperature 
of 20° C. for five days. When ready to count, place the petri dish 
over a counting-plate and, with a hand lens, count the number of 
colonies. If a counting-plate is not available, lines may be made 
across the bottom of the plate with a blue pencil, for marking 
glass to aid in counting. Each colony represents an original 
organism. Multiply the number of colonies by the dilution, and 
the result is the approximate number of organisms in the sample. 
Repeat this with six plates, and take the average of them as the 
final count. 

GLASSWARE NECESSARY FOR PLATING ONE SAMPLE OF MILK 

9 petri dishes. 1 250 c. c. glass-stoppered 

3 1 c. c. (straight) pipettes. bottle. 

1 2 c. c. pipette. 1 graduated cylinder 100 c. c. 

1 liter flask (water). 5 feet glass tubing, width 10 m. 

1 250 c. c. flask (litmus). m. or metal box. 

2 150 c. c. glass-stoppered 9 test tubes (Board of Health) 

bottles. 1 counting plate. 



134 Milh and Its Products 

GLASSWARE NECESSARY FOR MAKING ONE LITER OF MEDIA 

1 thermometer (Centigrade 2 funnels, diameter, 15 c. m. 

scale). 1 flask (liter), 

2 burettes — 50 c. c. graduated 1 5 c. c. pipette. 

to .1 c. c. 2 agate pails. 



APPARATUS 

rSteam sterilizer. 
-j Autoclave. 
iHot air sterilizer. 

Or, 

{Steam cooker or high altitude cooker 
and 
Kitchen oven. 

2 4-quart aluminium or agate kettles. 

1 balances or scales (metric) sensitive to grams. 

6 wire baskets. 

1 hand lens. 

1 Bunsen burner or alcohol lamp. 

1 forceps. 

MATERIALS 

Beef extract (Liebig's). . Litmus (cubes). 

Peptone (Wittes). Cotton (absorbent). 

NaOH (normal). Cotton, common. 

HCl (normal). Phenol phthalein. 

Agar (threads). Alcohol. 

Gelatine (Gold Label). Filter paper — diameter 45 c. m, 



Lactose (pulverized). 



CHAPTER VII 

MARKET MILK 

In general, any conditions which make milk 
of better quality for manufacture, also make it of 
better quality to be consumed as milk. These 
conditions are not only those which have to do with 
the composition of the milk, but any other influences, 
as feed, health, care of the cows, or conditions of 
cleanliness. Several conditions affect the quality of 
milk intended for consumption as such. In the 
first place, it must be of high quality so far as 
the composition is concerned. Second, it must be 
secreted from healthy cows, fed on pure food and 
kept in clean stables. Third, it must be so treated 
that the fat does not readily separate from the other 
solids, and it must not readily undergo fermentation. 
Last of all, it must be clean. 

Cleanliness. — Since cleanliness is equally impor- 
tant, whether the milk is intended for consumption 
or manufacture, it is well to take this up in detail 
first. All vessels used to contain milk should be 
heavily tinned ; pails, cans, and the like, that are 
of the kind called ironclad are preferable on ac- 
count of durability. An efficient means of attain- 
ing cleanliness is in avoiding seams in the utensils. 

(135) 



136 Milk and Its Products 

This is secured by the use of the pressed or seam- 
less vessels wherever possible, and when it is not 
possible to use these, by taking care that the joints 
are completely and smoothly filled with solder. In 
ordinary pails as found in the market this is never 
done, and it is a matter of considerable importance 
to the purchaser that all such seams be resoldered 
before using. The tinware should be kept bright 
and perfect. So soon as any rust spots make their 
appearance, an entrance is given into the soft iron 
for germs and small particles of decaying matter, 
which are in consequence removed with much more 
difficulty. Milk is much more easily removed from 
vessels when it has not been allowed to become 
dried upon their surface. If rinsed as soon as 
emptied, tin vessels may be much more easily cleaned 
than if allowed to stand for several hours. For 
such rinsing, lukewarm water is much preferable to 
cold or hot water. Cold water does not so readily 
unite with the milk as warm water, and hot water, 
by coagulating the albumin, may cause the milk to 
stick or "cook on" to the sides of the vessel. The 
process of cleaning vessels that have contained milk 
should be : First, to rinse them thoroughly in luke- 
warm water ; second, to wash them thoroughly with 
the aid of some good soap or alkali, in water as 
hot as the hand will bear ; third, to thoroughly 
rinse in hot water ; fourth, to expose to live 
steam from one to two minutes ; fifth, exposure, if 
possible, in bright sunlight from two to three hours. 
With these precautions, not only will the tinware be 



Methods of Semiring Clean Milk 137 

kept clean and bright, "but no germs will find a 
resting place in the crevices. The use of much 
strong alkali is inadvisable, as it serves to cloud 
and tarnish the tin, giving it a dull appearance. If 
the vessels are exposed to steam until they are 
thoroughly hot, and then placed in such position 
that they will drain, no other drying will be necessary. 
Having taken every precaution that the vessels 
are thoroughly cleansed, the prevention of access 
of dirt to the milk in process of milking is impor- 
tant. To this end, the body, especially the lower 
part of the belly and udder, of the cow should be 
thoroughly brushed and preferably dampened just 
before milking. The hands of the milker should 
be clean and his clothes free from dust, and the 
air of the stable should be free from dust. If 
the stable floor is dampened, it will not only aid 
in this respect, but in summer time wiD materi- 
ally reduce the temperature of hot and overcrowded 
stables. With these precautions, we may expect to 
secure milk containing a minimum amount of dirt;* 
but with all these precautions, more or less dirt will 
find access to it. And immediately after milk- 
ing, as much as possible of this dirt should be 
removed by at once straining the milk through a 
brass wire strainer of not less than fifty meshes to 
the inch and three or four thicknesses of loosely 
woven cotton or woolen cloth. The cloth strainer 
not only removes fine particles of dirt, but also 

*These directions will serve to secure milk that is reasonably clean. So 
much importance is now placed on extreme cleanliness and there is so large a 
demand for the extremely high grades of milk known as "certified," that a 
chapter on certified milk has been added to this edition. 



138 



Milk and Its Products 



entangles a considerable number of germs, and hence 
these strainers should be cleansed with great care, 
and should be frequently renewed. 

Treatment after drawing. — So soon as the milk is 
drawn, it should be rapidly brought to a temperature 
slightly below the surrounding atmosphere. While it 
is being cooled it should be stirred to prevent the 
cream from rising, and in milk that has been cooled 
in this way there will be comparatively little tendency 
afterward for the cream to separate from the milk. 
Milk so treated is in an ideal condition for consump- 
tion, even though the consumer may consider the 
quality poor because of the slight tendency of the 
cream to form on the surface. 

Aeration of milk. — Milk when drawn from the cow 
contains a certain amount of dissolved gases. These 

gases contain more or less 
of what is know^n as animal 
odor, the amount of this 
odor depending very largely 
upon the physical condition 
of the animal at the time 
the milk is drawn. Some- 
times the amount is very 
slight and scarcely notice- 
able, at other times it is so 
great as to be extremely of- 
fensive. These gases and 
the accompanying odor are 
easily removed from the 

'Star" milk cooler and .-,-,•, o ^i 

aerator. Diilk by cxposure 01 the 




Fig. 16. 



Good Influence of Aeration 



139 



milk to the air during the process of cooling, and to 
this extent aeration of the milk is an advantage. 
Various forms of aerators and combined aerators and 
coolers have been devised, many of which are simple 
and effective, and the best results follow their use. 
In order to secure these results by 
aeration, however, it is necessary 
that the apparatus used for aeration 
should expose the milk thoroughly 
to • the air, should not be cumber- 
some, and should be simple and ea- 
sily cleaned; moreover, the process 
of aeration should always take place 
in the purest atmosphere possible. 

Delivery of the millc. — In ordi- 
nary practice in the smaller towns 
and villages, and to a considerable 
extent in the larger cities also, the- 
milk is placed in cans in which it is transported 
from the dairy, and is measured out in small quan- 
tities to each customer from the cans in which it was 
originally placed. Where care is taken to cool the 
milk, as described, and during the process of serving 
the customers to keep the contents of the cans well 
stirred, substantial justice is done each individual cus- 
tomer in the matter of giving him the due proportion 
of cream and skimmed milk. This has been well 
shown in a trial made at the Cornell University 
Agricultural Experiment Station* several years ago, 




Fig 17. Champion 

milk cooler and aera- 
tor. 



* Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 20. 



140 



Milk and Its Products 



the interesting results of which are quoted below in 
full detail : 

To determine just how much variation there is in the fat 
of milk served to the different patrons of a route by dipping, 
a member of the Station staff accompanied a milkman as he 
went upon his route, and as the milk was about to be 
served to various patrons, took samples for analysis. The 
dipper, such as is ordinarily used by milkmen, was provided 
with a long handle, so that it rested on the bottom of the 
can when not in use. The milk was not stirred except by the 
motion of the wagon and the raising of the dipper. Twelve 
samples were taken, and yielded to analysis the following per- 
centages of fat : 



No. 



1 . 

2 . 
3 

4 . 

5 . 

6 . 



9 . 

10 . 

11 . 

12 . 



4.52 

4 

4 



521 
43 
41 J 

4.321 
3.85 [ 
5.05 J 

4.15) 

4.02 \ 
4.05 j 

4.94 

4.78 
4.85 



Taken from Can A. 



Taken from Can B. 



Taken from Can C. 



Taken from Can D. 



The milk was contained in four 30 -quart cans, marked 
A, B, C and D. The samples were taken as follows: 

No. 1. — Taken from A at 5.50 a. m., within a few rods 
of starting. 

No. 2. — Taken when the milk in A was half gone, at 
6.10. Seventeen dips had been made since No. 1 was taken, 
and three -fourths of a mile traveled. 

No. 3. — Taken from the bottom of A at 6.20. Twelve dips 
had been made since No. 2 was taken, and three -fourths of a 
mile traveled. 

No. 4. — Taken from the top of B at 6.10, three-fourths of 
a mile from starting. 



Variations in Quality in Dipping from Cans 141 

No. 5. — Taken from the middle of B at 7.20. Six quarts 
had been added to B at 6.35, and two and one-fourth miles 
traveled between taking samples 4 and 5. 

No. 6. — Taken from the bottom of B at 7.55. One and 
three-quarter miles traveled since taking sample 5. 

No. 7. —Taken, from the top of C at 6.20, one and one- 
half miles from the start. 

No. 8.— Taken from the middle of C at 6.50. One mile 
had been traveled since taking No. 7. At 6.35 six quarts re- 
maining in the bottom of A, and about an equal quantity 
bought of another dealer, had been added to C. 

No. 9..— Taken from the bottom of C at 7.00. Fifteen 
dips had been made, and a half mile traveled, since 8 was 
taken. 

No. 10. — Taken from the top of D at 7.50. 

No. 11. — Taken from the middle of D at a time when 
the wagon had stood still for four minutes, with the dipper 
resting on the bottom of the can. Time, 8,15, and one mile 
traveled since 10 was taken. 

No. 12. — Taken from the bottom of D. 

A second and third trial gave similar results. 







SECOND 


TRIAL. 






a. 


b. 


Average. 




Sample 1 . 


. . 4.86 


4.78 


4.82 


(Before starting.) 


Sample 2 . 


. . 4.71 




4.71 


(Top of can.) 


Sample 3 - 


. . 4.82 




4.82 


(One-third gone.) 


Sample 4 . 


. . 4.83 


4.74 


4.78 


(Two -thirds gone.) 


Sample 5 . 


. . 4.73 


4.82 

THIRD 


4.77 

TRIAL. 


(Bottom of can.) 




a. 


b. 


Average 




Sample 1 . 


. . 4.20 


4.16 


4.18 


(Top of can.) 


Sample 2 . 


. . 4.11 


4.00 


4.05 


(One -fourth gone.) 


Sample 3 . 


. . 4.13 


4.01 


4.07 


(One -half gone.) 


Sample 4 . 


. . 4.15 


4.04 


4.09 


(Three -fourths gone 


Sample 5 . 


. .4.01 


■4.00 


4.00 


(Bottom of can.) 



142 Milk and Its Products 

These results were -abundantly confirmed by a sim- 
ilar series made by Dean in Canada.* 

The removal of the covers of the cans in the dusty 
and dirty streets always results in considerable contam- 
ination of the milk, hence the practice of putting the 
milk into bottles upon the farm and 
delivering these bottles intact to the 
consumer, has rapidly increased since 
its introduction, some ten years ago, 
and is now in almost universal use. 
When the bottles are used, the milk 
should be put into them as soon as it 
is drawn, strained and cooled; they 
should then be sealed and kept in a 
cool place until ready for delivery. 
This method of delivery, although 
it entails a greater expense in outfit 
and transportation and a considerable 
loss from breakage, is much to be 
preferred to the old manner. 

Milk so handled, and kept at a 
Sen^e " miik°shipping temperature between 45° and 50 
F., should be in good condition 
sixty hours after it is drawn. Its life can be pro- 
longed by pasteurization, and the liability to trans- 
mission of diseases through the milk at the same 
time reduced to a minimum, but whether pasteuriza- 
tion should be relied upon for these purposes is 
still somewhat of an open question. In so far as 
immunity from diseases which may be present in thes 




* Ontario Agricultural College, Btilletiu No. 66. 



Healthfulness of Skimmed Milk 143 

cows is concerned, official inspection of the herds 
is undoubtedly a greater safeguard than dependence 
upon pasteurization or sterilization ; and so far as 
the liability of transmission of other diseases is con- 
cerned, the milkman who is careless in regard to 
the cleansing of his utensils would quite as likely be 
careless in the pasteurization or sterilization process, 
so that reliability of the milkman is an important 
factor in the purity of the milk supply, no matter 
what other precautions are taken. 

Bad flavors in milk. — Milk may be unfit for con- 
sumption for reasons other than the presence of 
dirt or infection with bacterial germs. The cow 
herself is often responsible for bad flavors in milk. 
When lactation is far advanced the milk often has 
a disagreeable salty taste. In extreme cases it may 
even be described as acrid or bitter. While there 
is nothing particularly unwholesome about such milk, 
its bad flavor makes it unfit for food, and if the 
cow is within two months of calving, she should be 
allowed to go dry at once. If the time before calv- 
ing is longer than this, the bad flavor may often be 
remedied by taking care that the cow has plenty of 
succulent food, as roots or silage, and particularly 
that the proportion of dry, fibrous food is reduced 
to a minimum. 

Digestive disorders of any sort in the cow are 
frequently accompanied by strong flavors in the 
milk. These flavors are not to be attributed to the 
food, but to the bad condition of the animal, and 
they normally tend to disappear when the digestive 



144 Milk and Its Products 

organs regain their tone. Disorders of this sort 
are especially likely to occur when cows that have 
been poorly fed during the winter are suddenly turned 
on fresh rank pasture in the spring. 

Quality of milJc for consumjMon. — The fat is the 
most variable and the most valuable constituent of 
the milk, so that milk is ordinarily considered to be 
of value for human food in proportion to the amount 
of fat it contains, but where it is to be used as 
a food in large quantities, the fat may frequently 
be present in too large quantities for the digestion 
of many persons. Milk containing about 4 per 
cent of fat is probably an ideal food for the gen- 
eral mass of human beings. If there is above 5 
per cent of fat the other solids are somewhat out 
of proportion, and many are likely to have trouble 
with their digestion from using large amounts of 
such milk. On the other hand, if there is less 
than 3 per cent of fat, the casein and other solids 
are in too great proportion to the fat, and are less 
readily digested. The question of the healthfulness 
of milk from which a large part of the fat has been 
removed is one frequently discussed. The removal of 
the fat does not thereby in any way injure the other 
solids ; they are still there, and still as useful for 
food as before the fat was removed, only in con- 
suming such milk as food the fat must be supplied 
in some other way. For the person of vigorous 
digestion, who for reasons of economy desires to 
supply the fat required by his system in some 
cheaper form than that of milk fat, skimmed milk is 



Legal Standards for Milk 145 

a wholesome and nutritious article of diet, which 
furnishes to the system almost the same sort of 
nutrients that lean meat, eggs, or foods of like na- 
ture do, and no one should be debarred by legisla- 
tive or municipal enactment from using such an 
article of food if he so desires. 

Control of milk supply. — Since milk is so extremely 
variable in quality, and is so easily adulterated ; 
since often considerable variations are not readily 
detected ; above all, because the amount of milk 
used by any given person or family is compara- 
tively small, the consumer of milk is almost 
wholly at the mercy of the producer and dealer, and 
must rely for a good product very largely upon their 
honor. The state has recognized this, and to pre- 
vent imposition by unscrupulous people, has in 
various ways sought to regulate the sale of milk and 
like products. The chief means used has been to 
establish arbitrary standards of quality, and to subject 
to fine those dealers whose goods should be found 
to be below the required standard. The standards 
established by various states and municipalities have 
varied widely. From 2.5 to 3.7 per cent of fat, 
and from 11.5 to 13 per cent of total solids, have 
been the minimum requirements. (See Appendix C.) 
These standards, while efficient in securing honest 
dealing where they are rigidly enforced, nevertheless 
may work injustice, so far as the honesty of the 
dealer is concerned, under various circumstances, and 
may prevent the production and sale of a compara- 
tively low quality product at a reasonable price. It 
J 



146 Milk and Its Products 

would seem, therefore, that the best means of regulat- 
ing the traffic in milk would be, not to set up an 
artificial standard to which all must come, but to 
require each individual dealer to guarantee his own 
standard, and hold him responsible if his milk were 
found below. In this way it would be possible to 
sell milk of various qualities, from strictly skimmed 
to heavy cream, upon a graduated scale of prices, 
with exact justice to every one. 

Cream for consumption. — Since the introduction of 
the centrifugal separator, the use of cream as an 
article of diet and for household purposes has very 
rapidly increased, and the amount of cream so used 
now represents a very considerable proportion of the 
total production of milk. The sale of cream to con- 
sumers is usually carried on in connection with the 
sale of milk, and the conditions of care and cleanli- 
ness necessary in the one case apply equally well to 
the other. Cream, however, is much more generallj^ 
delivered in bottles than is milk, and since the daily 
quantity used is smaller, there is a greater demand 
that it should keep sweet for a longer time. For this 
reason it is still more important that cream should be 
kept, so far as possible, free from contamination with 
germs of fermentation, and at a comparatively low 
temperature from the time it leaves the separator 
till it goes into the consumer's hands; and of course 
the fresher and freer from germs the milk is when 
separated, the better will be the keeping qualities of 
/ the resulting cream. Milk containing more than .2 per 
cent of lactic acid should not be used for the pro- 



Cream for Consumption 147 

duction of cream for commercial purposes. '^ With 
care it is not difficult to produce cream that will 
remain sweet for four or five days or even a week. 

Pasteurized cream. — For the sake of its better keep- 
ing qualities cream that is to be used for commercial 
purposes is often pasteurized. If it is pasteurized at 
155° F. for 10 minutes and quickly cooled to 50° F. 
or below% and bottled in sterile bottles, it will keep, 
with ordinary precautions, for a week or more. 
Cream so pasteurized will have no perceptibly cooked 
taste, but it will be considerably thinner in consist- 
ency than cream of a like percentage of fat that 
has not been pasteurized, because the pasteurization 
greatly and permanently reduces the viscositj^ Ow- 
ing to the fact that the '' quality" or richness of the 
cream in fat is, in popular estimation, almost wholly 
in proportion to its consistency, this lack of con- 
sistency in pasteurized cream is a matter of consid- 
erable commercial importance. Babcock and Russel* 
have shown that the consistency may be restored 
by the addition of a small amount of a solution 
of lime in cane sugar, to which they have given 
the name viscogen. The amount added is so small 
(about 1 part to 150 of cream) that, while the con- 
sistency is perfectly restored, the cream is not 
affected in odor, taste or composition ; but since 
the addition of anything whatever to milk or cream 
is prohibited in many states, cream to which vis- 
cogen has been added should always be sold under 
a distinctive name, as visco- cream. For preparation 
of viscogen, see Appendix A- 

♦Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, 13tli Report, p. 81. 



148 ' Milh and Its Products 

Quality of cream. — The most unsatisfactory thing- 
about the sale of cream, commercially, is its varying 
percentage of fat. Since cream is merely milk into 
which a greater or less proportion of fat has been 
gathered, it follows that cream may be anything 
that the seller can induce the puchaser to accept 
under that name, and may contain anywhere from 6 
or 8 up to 60 or 70 per cent of fat. Where cream 
is raised by the gravity process it will contain from 
18 to 22 per cent of fat ; but where it is separated 
by centrifugal process the separator can be so 
adjusted as to take cream of almost any fat con- 
tent desired. 

A moderately heavy cream is quite as useful and 
desirable for table and domestic purposes as one ex- 
cessively rich . in butter -fat. The United States De- 
partment of Agriculture has recommended a minimum 
standard of 18 per cent fat for cream for commer- 
cial purposes. Such a cream is rich enough for most 
table and domestic use, and is one that can easily 
be produced by a gravity process. Very many state 
laws have recognized the federal standard, though 
other standards are also in force (see Appendix C). 



CHAPTER VIII 

CERTIFIED MILK 

Definition. — Commercial certified milk is a com- 
paratively new product in this country, and, strictly 
speaking, includes milk the qualities of which, especi- 
ally those that depend upon strict sanitary precau- 
tions, are certified to or guaranteed by some official 
organization, usually a milk commission, appointed by 
a medical society or a board of health. Such com- 
missions maintain a somewhat strict supervision over 
the production and handling of the milk, and certify 
to its quality as to cleanliness, purity and composition. 
This guarantee, or certification, gives the consumer a 
fairly satisfactory assurance that he receives milk of 
superior quality. In a somewhat broader sense, the 
term certified milk may include milk of like quality 
produced with equal care, although it may not be 
certified to by any official organization. Originally 
the term certified milk was copyrighted, and rightly 
used only by a medical society in New Jersey that 
first certified to milk in the United States. 

Origin of certified milTc. — Primarily, certified milk 
was produced for infant -feeding and for hospital use. 
The high mortality of infants in the great cities led 
boards of health to seek for a purer and more 

(149) 



150 Milk and Its Products 

wholesome product for this particular purpose. The 
expense of producing milk of this particular grade 
is necessarily great, as the labor involved is very 
much more than that required to produce ordinary 
market milk, and the continual oversight by trained 
men unavoidably increases the cost of production very 
materially. Certified milk differs from pasteurized or 
sterilized milk in this important essential. The 
former is kept as clean and as free from foreign 
matter as possible, while the latter is treated usually 
to some degree of heat, to kill and prevent the 
growth of objectionable bacteria. Perhaps the most 
ideal condition for the consumption of milk is secured 
when the milk is drawn by the young directly from 
the mammary glands of the mother. However, when 
the dairyman attempts to serve his customers in the 
great cities, hundreds of miles from the source of 
production, with a like quality of milk, many difficul- 
ties are encountered, some of which are discussed in 
the following pages. It is the aim of the producer 
of certified milk to approach as nearly as possible 
the ideal condition above mentioned by excluding all 
foreign matter and by keeping the milk at a low 
temperature. 

Certified milk has been kept for months in a per- 
fectly sweet condition. It has been sent from the 
interior of this continent to Europe, and returned with- 
out any indication of souring. After such a journey 
or length of time, it would not, however, be considered 
as safe for food as the fresh product, even though it 
had not soured to any perceptible degree. 



standards 151 

Standards. — The commissions that are now super- 
vising the production of certified milk have established 
various standards as to composition and bacterial con- 
tent. Most of these standards exclude from certifica- 
tion milk that has a general bacterial content of more 
than from 10,000 to 30,000 per cubic centimeter, and 
the requirement as to fat -content is usually some- 
what more than 4 per cent. It is not at all uncom- 
mon for careful producers to secure milk having but 
a few hundred bacteria per cubic centimeter. 

Production. — In the production of certified milk, it 
is quite essential that the stables be constructed with 
particular reference to cleanliness. As the labor in- 
volved is one of the most important factors in the 
expense of production, the ease with which the stable 
may be kept clean becomes an important factor. As 
wood was formerly the cheapest of the building ma- 
terials in this country, it was used largely and, in many 
cases, almost exclusively, in the construction of sta- 
bles; but, as the certified milk producer desires the 
most sanitary and at the same time the most durable 
structure, he has eliminated wood as a building ma- 
terial to a large degree. While glazed tile and glazed 
brick make a most ideal structure, yet their expense 
in most cases prevents their use in the construction 
of stables that are to prove financially a paying invest- 
ment. Modern methods of cement construction are 
proving quite satisfactory. The floors, walls, and 
even the roof, are sometimes constructed of this ma- 
terial and seem to meet, fairly well, the requirements 
of a stable for the production of certified milk. Mod- 



152 Milk and Its Products 

ern methods of waterproofing the stable floors have 
overcome quite largely the objections that were for- 
merly made to cement because it was damp, and con- 
sequently a great conductor of heat. 

It is important that the stables be constructed with 
particular reference to ventilation. It is essential that 
the air in the stable shall be comparatively fresh at 
all times. While there is no accepted standard or 
easy means of determining the purity of the air in 
the stable, yet it may be said that it will be sufficiently 
pure when, on entering the stable from out-of-doors, 
the air presents a fair degree of freshness, with no 
marked animal odors or perceptible staleness. If such 
odor or staleness is obvious, the stable should be 
considered not sufficiently well ventilated. 

As dust is a great carrier of bacteria, it is impor- 
tant to admit only pure air and to have all dairy-rooms 
and stables as free from dust as possible. When con- 
ditions will permit, it will be found an advantage to 
have as much as possible of the grounds surrounding 
the stable covered with turf. This will prevent, to a 
considerable degree, the entrance of dust in the sta- 
ble, particularly during the dry summer months when 
it is most difficult to produce milk having a low 
bacterial content. 

Sanitary stables. — It is important that sunlight be 
permitted to enter the stables. This feature is con- 
sidered of so much importance by some milk producers 
that they endeavor to arrange their stables so that 
the sunlight may be permitted to enter on one side of 
the stable in the forenoon and on the other side in 



Construction of Stables 153 

the afternoon. This is most desirable during the 
winter months, in order to give as much direct sun- 
light as possible to the stables, because of its effect in 
promoting the general health of the cattle, as well as 
in destroying or retarding the development of bacteria. 

The amount of window surface in the cow -stable 
should at least be sufficient to provide four square feet 
of clear window surface per cow. If this amount, or 
more, is provided, and the windows are fairly well dis- 
tributed, the stable will be sufficiently well lighted for 
all practical purposes. While some may desire more 
than this, yet, if the building is so situated that the 
windows will admit direct sunlight, the window surface 
stated will be quite sufficient. 

In constructing a stable, it should be made suffi- 
ciently large to give each animal at least 600 cubic 
feet of air space. If a less amount is provided, >t 
will be found more difficult to keep the air pure with- 
out causing perceptible drafts of air produced by ven- 
tilation. The ideal ventilation secures a gradual 
change without producing drafts, and yet sufficient to 
maintain the desired degree of freshness. 

The ease with which the stable may be cleaned is 
an important consideration. Not only should it be so 
constructed that it is easy to remove the voidings of 
the animals, but it is necessary to prevent accumula- 
tions of dust in any part of the stable, as well. It is, 
of course, impossible to so construct a practical stable 
that dust will not settle in some places. This, how- 
ever, should be removed frequently, so there shall be 
no accumulation. 



154 Milk and Its Products 

Selection of the coivs. — It is important that none but 
sound, healthy cows be selected for the production of 
certified milk. The strongest and most vigorous organ- 
izations not only produce milk best in quality, but 
are most certain to stand the strain incident to the 
trials of heavy dairy feeding. It is also important 
from a financial standpoint that none but heavy 
milkers be selected, as the labor of caring for the 
animals is so great as to make light milkers even 
more unprofitable in the certified milk stable than on 
the ordinary farm. Sufficient care should be exercised 
to select cows that have sound and normal udders. 
Those that have at some time been affected with gar- 
get, even though apparently fully recovered, should be 
regarded with suspicion. It is well understood that 
some cows, although apparently in a perfectly normal, 
healthy condition, produce milk having a somewhat 
high bacterial content. While these cows are not so 
desirable, yet it is impossible to weed them out with- 
out making one or more bacterial examinations of the 
milk of each individual. Cows that show any indica- 
tion of irritation at milking time are not desirable. 
Any unnecessary movement tends to produce more or 
less dust, particularly in the winter time, when the 
stable floors ' are partially or wholly covered with 
litter. 

Provision should be made to remove all cows from 
the certified milk barn that have reached the period 
of lactation when they are known as strippers. On 
the other hand, they should not be placed in the certi- 
fied herd until they are surely over the trials of par- 



Cleaning and Care of Cows 155 

turition. Ten days from calving should usually elapse 
before using the milk as certified. 

Care of the cows. — It is customary to clip the hair 
from a considerable portion of the rear of the cow, 
particularly from the udder, flank, tail, thighs, etc., to 
facilitate the ease of keeping them clean. Anything 
that will tend to promote the ease in keeping the 
cows or the stable clean and, at the same time, not 
detract from the comfort of the animal, will aid ma- 
terially in the production of pure milk. In order to 
prevent the brushing of dust or dirt from the cows 
by the milkers at milking time, the cows should be 
thoroughly groomed each day, and lightly groomed or 
thoroughly brushed before each milking. It should 
constantly be borne in mind that dust and all fine 
particles of dirt carry large numbers of bacteria, and 
that the most successful producer of clean milk 
devises means by which these undesirable foreign 
products may be most perfectly excluded. Conse- 
quently, the cows should not be fed just before 
milking time any food that is liable to cause any dust 
or disagreeable or objectionable odors in the stable. 
The time for feeding the dry, coarse fodders is 
immediately after milking, so that the stable may be. 
most effectually free from the dust incident to feed- 
ing. It is important, also, to use litter or bedding 
that will make as little dust as possible. Clean, dry 
pine shavings are popular on this account. While 
fine -cut wheat or rye straw may be used, yet the 
shavings are preferred by most dairymen on account 
of cleanliness and ease of handling. 



156 Milk and Its Products 

Care of the stable . — The thorough cleansing of the 
stable is an important factor in the production of 
clean milk. Not only should the stable be thoroughly 
cleaned of the voidings, but it should be washed care- 
fully every day. If the cows are kept in the stable 
most of the time, it should be cleaned of voidings 
two or three times daily. The thorough cleaning of 
the stable is an important aid in keeping the stable 
air comparatively fresh. An abundant supply of 
water, under pressure, that may be forced through 
a hose, is, of course, very desirable. If the water 
supply is somewhat limited, or the use of a hose not 
permitted, the use of disinfectants is oftentimes resorted 
to, and undoubtedly is a very great aid in maintain- 
ing a low bacterial content in the milk. However, 
the use of disinfectants cannot take the place of 
thorough cleansing, as the disinfectants will not pre- 
vent dust from accumulating. Before each milking, 
the stable should be freed from dust as perfectly as 
possible. Various means are employed to accomplish 
this end. Where water is at hand, under sufficient 
pressure to produce a fine spray, spraying the whole 
interior of the stable is an effective means of allay- 
ing the dust. When this cannot be done, some suc- 
cessful dairymen turn live steam into the stable in 
sufficient amounts to perfectly clear the stable of all 
dust. As this steam condenses, and falls, it carries 
the particles of dust with it. This, as does spraying, 
tends to dampen the litter and those parts of the 
cows that are not washed, and thus prevents dust by 
any movement of the cows. 



Necessary Precautions in MilMng 157 

Milking. — In the production of certified milk, clean- 
liness all along the line is most essential, and the 
cleanliness of the milkers and their wearing apparel 
is quite important. The milker should be scrupulously 
clean, and should wear clean clothing, preferably cot- 
ton suits that will readily show any accumulation of 
dirt. Each milker should be provided with a clean 
suit as often as every day. After the dust is removed 
from the stable by spraying, or by the other means 
described above, before the milking commences, the 
cows should be thoroughly washed on those parts 
that are likely to come in contact with the milker, 
such as the sides, thighs, udder, tail, etc. These parts 
should be washed in at least two waters, to the first 
of which should be added some odorless disinfectant. 
After the last washing, the parts should be wiped with 
a damp cloth so there is no danger of dripping. Then 
the cows are ready to be milked. Practically without 
exception, the milkers in a certified barn use some 
kind of covered pail. There are several kinds of 
covered pails with various -sized openings on the mar- 
ket, from which choice may be made. They are, how- 
ever, pretty well agreed that milking through a strainer 
is not to be commended. It undoubtedly is a most 
excellent practice to strain the milk of each cow sepa- 
rately. This gives the dairyman an opportunity to 
reject the milk from any cow that does not seem to be 
quite normal. Occasionally an individual produces a 
little slightly stringy milk that would not be detected 
by the milker, but can be rejected at straining time 
if the milk from each cow is strained separately. 



Pure Air in Stahle and Bottling -room 159 

The milk should be removed from the stable imme- 
diately after it is drawn. It is needjess to say that 
the milking should always be done with dry hands. 
After carrying the milk of one cow from the stable, 
the milker should thoroughly wash and w^ipe his hands 
before returning to milk another. 

It is equally important that thorough cleanliness of 
both vessels and air be maintained when the milk is 
removed from one vessel to another. The question of 
providing pure air that is free from dust for the 
straining-, cooling- and bottling-rooms, is sometimes a 
difficult one to solve. During the winter months, 
when the ground is covered with snow, it is not so 
difficult; but when, during the summer,- the air is 
more or less dust -laden, it is not easy to free it from 
dust before admitting it to the milk -room. Where 
large quantities of milk are handled in close proximity 
to the sterilizing apparatus, the air becomes heated 
and requires frequent changing, so that it is difficult 
to ventilate and admit none but pure air. It is very 
much better to admit air to the cooling- and bottling- 
rooms through a flue of a considerable height, as the 
air near the ground is more likely to be dust-laden 
than that higher up. When an abundance of water 
under pressure is at hand, an effective and most satis- 
factory means of ventilating is to force the air down a 
flue and into the room by means of one or more fine 
sprays from an ordinary fine -spray nozzle, placed at 
or near the top of the flue. This not only drives the 
air into the room, but it removes the dust before it 
enters. One of the most successful dairymen, who 



160 Milk and Its Products 

has not the advantage of water pressure, pumps the 
water to the top of a flue, and permits it to run 
through small apertures and drop like rain, thus caus- 
ing a current of air down the flue and, at the same 
time, freeing it from dust. 

Milk should be cooled as soon as possible after it 
is drawn from the cow, and the temperature should 
not be allowed to rise until it is in the consumers' 
hands. While every precaution should be taken to 
exclude dust or dirt of any kind from the milk, it is 
yet necessary to strain the milk before cooling through 
sterilized strainers of cotton wool. 

Immediately after cooling, it should be bottled, and 
the bottles packed immediately in the receptacle in 
which they are shipped. When the milk is to be 
shipped considerable distances, it is customary to pro- 
tect the cap with which the bottle is sealed with either 
paraffin or some sort of lead foil, paper, or tin caps. 
Some of these caps are attached to the bottles with 
lead seals, so that it is impossible to remove the eon- 
tents without breaking the seals. Certified milk bot- 
tles are usually packed in cases carrying twelve qua'rts, 
and are sufficiently large to hold enough crushed ice to 
withstand a shipment of three or four hundred miles. 

Care of utensils. — It is necessary to exercise the 
greatest care in washing the bottles and preparing 
them for filling They should be thoroughly washed 
with water containing soap or cleansing powder, and 
then rinsed, preferably by an arrangement that will 
permit each bottle to be rinsed with pure water that 
does not come in contact with any other bottle. After 



Cooling and Bottling 161 

rinsing, they should be drained, placed mouth down- 
ward, and sterilized, preferably with steam under a few 
pounds pressure. There are some machines on the 
market that will fill the bottles and cap them without 
the attendant handling either bottles or caps. When 
the bottles and caps are both sterile, this, of course, 
is a somewhat desirable feature. There is no reason 
whatever why just as good results may not be obtained 
in smaller plants, if the operator desires to fill the 
bottles by means of a pitcher or dipper or some other 
convenient vessel, and, as a matter of fact, this 
method has been employed by some very successful of 
the smaller producers. In certified milk plants, where 
large quantities of milk are handled, some of the 
modern bottle -filling machines prove quite satisfactory. 
Some dairymen set the bottles in ice -water as soon 
as they are filled and capped, in order to secure the 
quickest cooling. Others prefer to place the bottles 
in the shipping cases and cover with finely crushed ice. 

All vessels that are used in the handling of milk 
should be thoroughly washed, rinsed, and sterilized, 
preferably by steam under pressure. In sterilizing 
cans and pails, it is quite important to have them 
placed in the sterilizer mouth downward. 

Cost of production. — The cost of production of cer- 
tified milk will depend quite largely on the location 
and arrangement of the barns, stables, bottling-rooms, 
etc., as well as the ease and convenience by means of 
which suitable roughage and concentrates may be 
secured and handled. It is also difficult to secure 
efficient labor for the cleaning and milking, and to 
K 



162 Milk and Its Products 

keep them profitably employed during the whole day. 
As milk is usually packed in ice for shipment, easy 
access to a shipping-station . becomes an important 
factor. Since for every pound of milk shipped there 
will be at least three pounds of extra weight in ice, 
bottles and cases, the breakage of bottles also adds 
materially to the cost. Under present conditions, the 
cost of producing and delivering certified milk at the 
shipping- station may be estimated, from a conservative 
standpoint, to be at least twice that of good market milk. 

The various commissions that superintend the pro- 
duction and marketing of certified milk as yet have 
not agreed upon and adopted a uniform standard; 
consequently there is considerable variation as to the 
requirements, and some dissatisfaction among the pro- 
ducers of certified milk at what seem to them to be some- 
what arbitrary rulings. This feature has undoubtedly 
deterred some from entering this field of production 
who otherwise might have done so had they been 
permitted to have complete control of their business. 

The high cost of certified milk is undoubtedly the 
chief factor in preventing its more general use. 
There are, however, many people in our cities who 
desire milk of this grade, but, as they are pretty 
well scattered over the residence districts, the cost of 
delivery, as well as the cost of production, compared 
to that of ordinary market milk, seems to many to be 
excessively high. At the present time, under the 
existing requirements, the demand for certified milk 
in the cities of the United States seems to be fairly 
well provided for. 



CHAPTER IX 

SEPARATION OF CREAM 

Cream is that part of milk into which a large 
portion of its fat has been gathered. It is com- 
posed of the same constituents as milk, but they 
are not in the same or any constant relative pro- 
portion. Cream is separated from milk to be con- 
sumed as food, and, as a matter of convenience, in 
the manufacture of butter. The separation of cream 
is always attended with some loss of fat. The per- 
centage of fat in cream may vary anywhere between 
8 and 70 per cent. Cream of good quality for com- 
mercial purposes should contain from 18 to 25 per 
cent of fat, and very rich cream contains from 35 to 
40 per cent of fat. Cream is composed of glob- 
ules of fat, with such part of the water and solids 
as adhere to them. . Its separation from the milk 
is effected by means of the difference in specific 
gravity between the globules of fat and the milk 
serum. The fat in the milk is in the condition 
known as an emulsion ; that is, in the form of minute 
globules, which are kept from running together and 
coalescing by means of the surface tension of their 
particles and the viscosity of the liquid in which 
they float ; therefore, any condition of the milk 

(163) 



164 Milk and Its Products 

which tends to increase the surface tension or the 
viscosity will act as a hindrance towards the sepa- 
ration of the cream. While the viscosity of the milk 
serum prevents the particles of fat from uniting 
into a mass, still the particles have considerable free- 
dom of movement in the milk, and being of a less 
specific gravity, of course are acted upon with less 
intensity by any force to which the milk is subjected. 
If the milk is allowed to remain at rest in a 
vessel, the force of gravity, acting with different in- 
tensities upon the globules of fat and the milk serum, 
will cause the particles of fat to gather together 
near the surface of the liquid. In so gathering, 
they carry with them certain of the milk, con- 
stituents, and the layer of fat globules and adher- 
ing particles we call cream. From time immemo- 
rial, and until within a very recent date, the 
force of gravity, acting in the way indicated, has 
been the only means used for separating cream from 
milk. Now machines are in use that effect a sepa- 
ration of the cream from milk by means of centrif- 
ugal force, and at the present time we have three 
systems of separating cream ; namely, by gravity 
acting upon a thin layer of milk in a shallow vessel, 
known as the Shallow Pan System ; secondly, by 
gravity acting upon a deeper mass of milk, usually 
submerged or partially submerged in water, known 
as the Deep Setting System ; and thirdly, hj ma- 
chines making use of centrifugal force, known as 
the Centrifugal or Separator System. The quality 
of the cream for consumption or for purposes of 



Systems of Separating Cream 165 

manufacture is not affected either one way or the 
other by any of these three systems, so that their 
relative economy rests wholly upon the complete- 
ness, cost and ease of separation. 

Since the separation of cream from milk is al- 
ways attended with some loss of fat, it is pertinent 
to inquire as to the necessity of any separation of 
the cream when butter is to be made. It is per- 
fectly possible to manufacture butter directly, by 
churning whole milk without separating" cream, and 
undoubtedly the first churns were skins of animals, 
into which the whole milk was placed and then 
agitated until the butter was brought ; but under 
good conditions it is not possible to so completely 
remove the fat from the milk by a churning process 
as by a creaming process ; so that while there is 
some loss in separating the cream, there is usually 
a greater loss in churning the butter from the whole 
milk. Even when the loss of fat in the butter- 
milk is no greater than the loss of fat in the 
skimmed milk, the greater amount of labor required 
to churn the whole mass of milk still renders cream- 
ing an economical practice in the manufacture of 
butter. 

Gravity creaming. — In separating cream by force 
of gravity, there is a greater loss of fat, a longer 
time required, and the various conditions affecting 
the milk have a greater influence upon the creaming 
than when centrifugal separation is used. The 
conditions of the milk that affect the creaming by 
the gravity process are ; First, the size of the fat 



166 Milk and Its Products 

globules ; second, the amount of solids not fat in 
the milk ; third, the character of the solids not 
fat. The larger the fat globules the more readily 
they separate from the milk, since the larger the 
sphere the less the ratio between the surface and 
the mass, so that a large fat globule meets with pro- 
portionately less resistance because of the viscosity 
of the milk than a small one. The size of the fat 
globules is to a great extent a characteristic of the 
breed and individuality of the animal, but cows 
newly calved secrete larger fat globules than those 
in advanced periods of lactation ; consequently we 
find that the milk from new milch cows is more 
readily creamed than from those long in milk. 
The amount of solids not fat affects creaming b}^ 
the gravity process because of the difference it effects 
in the specific gravity of the fat and milk serum. 
The solids not fat are all heavier than water, and 
in the milk are in a state of solution or semi -solu- 
tion ; hence, an increase in the amount of solids not 
fat increases the specific gravity of the milk serum 
in which they are dissolved, and makes the differ- 
ence between the specific gravity of the fat and 
milk serum greater and the separation of the fat 
easier. The proportion of solids not fat is in- 
fluenced by the period of lactation and, to a con- 
siderable extent, by the character of the food. Cows 
far advanced in lactation often give milk extremely 
rich in solids not fat. Cows fed on dry food give 
milk containing less water than those fed on watery 
or succulent foods. In so far as these conditions 



Gravity Processes of Creaming 167 

increase the amount of solids not fat, we should ex- 
pect such milk to be more easily creamed, but the 
favorable effect of the increase of solids is more 
than counterbalanced by the unfavorable effect of 
the character of the solids. Of the solids not fat, 
albumin, casein, sugar and ash increase the viscos- 
ity of the milk in the order named, and of these 
the casein is more subject to variation, so that the 
increase in the proportion of solids not fat ordi- 
narily means an increase in casein, and this means 
a largely increased viscosity. And the increase in 
viscosity tends to prevent the separation of the fat ' 
more than the increase in specific gravity tends to 
aid it. In general, the conditions which bring about 
an increase in the viscosity of the milk occur .at the 
same time as the fat globules are growing smaller, so 
that we find a wide range of variability in the ease 
and completeness with which cream may be separated 
by gravity process. 

Shallow pan creaming. — This is the oldest method 
of separating cream from milk, and notwithstanding 
the rapid changes that have taken place in cream- 
ing methods since the introduction of centrifugal 
separators, large amounts of butter are still made 
from cream separated in this way. The conditions 
most favorable for a complete separation of the fat 
in the shallow pan system are, that the milk should 
be put at rest in the pans as quickly as possible 
after it is drawn, that it should cool with a fair de- 
gree of rapidity to a temperature of 60° F., and that 
it should remain as nearly as may be constantly at 



168 Millc and Its Products 

that temperature for at least thirty -six hours. 
Further, since the milk must remain for so long a 
time, it is essential that the atmosphere to which it 
is exposed be pure and free from currents of air 
and particles of dust. These conditions can be 
secured in a clean, cool, well ventilated cellar. 
In the shallow pan system, the depth of milk should 
be from 2 to 4 inches. Occasionally water, usually 
running water, is used to secure a quick cooling 
and more even temperature surrounding the milk, 
and when this is done the depth of the milk may 
be increased to 4 or 6 inches. Under the shallow 
pan system, the cream is separated from the milk 
by removing it from the surface with a thin flat 
instrument, usually made of tin, and called a 
skimmer. In this method of removal, it is not 
possible to completely remove all the cream that has 
risen to the surface, and in removing the cream 
more or less of the milk is taken with it, so that 
in the process of skimming there is a considerable 
loss of fat and a thin cream is always obtained ; 
but even if the losses in the skimming operation 
could be obviated, the separation of the particles of 
fat in the shallow pan system is less complete than 
in either of the others. Under ordinarily good con- 
ditions, 20 per cent of the fat in the milk is lost 
when the shallow pan system is used. Skimmed milk 
containing less than .5 of ' 1 per cent of fat is 
rarely obtained under this system. 

Deep setting system. — About thirty years ago it 
was discovered that if milk could be set in vessels 
when first drawn, and^ rapidly cooled to a tempera- 



Theory of Beep Setting System 169 

ture of about 40° F., and held at that temperature 
for twelve to twenty - four hours, not only could 
the depth be increased from 4 to 20 inches, but the 
separation was much more complete in a shorter 
time. In order to bring about quick cooling, ves- 
sels not more than a foot in diameter were used, and 
water, either from cold springs or containing ice, 
was used as the refrigerant. Two essentials, then, 
for complete creaming by this system are the rapid 
and immediate cooling of the milk to 40° F., and 
a sufficient supply of ice to maintain this tempera- 
ture for twenty - four hours. Under these condi- 
tions the fat may be so completely separated that 
not more than .2 of 1 per cent of fat is left in the 
skimmed milk. Various devices have been used, 
the best known of which is the Cooley system, in 
which the cans are not only surrounded by ice- 
cold water, but completely submerged in it, the 
chief effect of the submerging being to guard the 
milk against contamination through the atmosphere. 
The same conditions as to the character of the milk 
affect completeness of separation in both the shallow 
pan and deep setting systems, but no completely 
satisfactory explanation has ever been assigned as a 
reason why the fat globules should rise more 
rapidly and more completely through 20 inches of 
milk at a temperature of 40° F. in the deep setting 
system, than through 4 inches at a temperature of 
60° -70° F. in the shallow pan system. 

It has been asserted that because water is a 
better conductor of heat than fat, it will cool more 
rapidly than the fat, and will increase in density 



170 Milk and Its Products 

till its maximum density is reached at about 40° F., 
at which temperature the difference between the 
specific gravity of the water or milk serum and the 
fat will be at its greatest, and the separation of the 
fat for that reason promoted. But while the water 
does cool faster than the fat, the fat shrinks or 
increases in density much faster than the water, 
so that the difference in specific gravity between the 
two is no greater, and in fact less, at low tempera- 
tures than at high ones. Further, the viscosity of 
the milk serum is much increased at low tempera- 
tures, so that the favorable influence of low tempera- 
tures cannot be explained upon these grounds. 
Arnold* attempted to explain the favorable influence 
wholly upon the relative contraction of the fat and 
serum, as follows : 

Water is a better conductor of heat than fat ; hence when 
the temperature of milk varies either up or down, the water 
in the milk feels the effect of heat or cold sooner than the 
fat in the cream does, therefore the cream is always a little 
behind the water in swelling with heat or shrinking with cold, 
thus diminishing the difference between the specific gravity of 
the milk and cream when the temperature is rising, and in- 
creasing it when the temperature is falling. 

But that this explanation is not sufficient, Bab- 
cock t has shown thus : 

Though it is true that water is a better conductor of heat 
than fat, the small size of the fat globules renders it impossible 
that, under any circumstances, there can be more than a small 
fraction of a degree difference between the temperature of the 
fat and that of the milk serum. Moreover, within the limits 
of temperature practical for creaming (90° F. to 40° F.), the 

* American Dairying, p. 210. 

t Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, Bull. 18, p. 24. -^ 



Effect of Fibrin 171 

coefficient of expansion of butter fat is more than three times as 
great as that of water, so that in order to maintain the same 
relative difference in their specific gravities, when the tempera- 
ture is falling, the milk serum must cool more than three times 
as rapidly as the fat. In other words, when the milk serum has 
cooled from 90° F. to 40° F., or through 50°, the fat globules 
should have lost less than 17°, and should still have a tempera- 
ture of over 73° F., a difference between the temperature of the 
fat and serum of more than 33°. Such a condition is mani- 
festly impossible, but any less difference than this would cause 
the fat to become relatively heavier than at first, and would 
operate against the creaming. 

On the whole, the most satisfactory explanation of 
the good effect of the low temperature in the deep 
setting system is that advanced by Babcock,* that 
the presence of fibrin in milk, especially when it has 
coagulated in the form of threadlike masses, permeat- 
ing the fluid in all directions, offers a considerable 
obstacle to the rising of the fat globules. The sudden 
reduction of the temperature quickly after the milk 
is drawn, by preventing the formation of these 
fibrin clots or threads, aids in the separation of the 
fat. This would be entirely satisfactory wore it not 
for the fact that it has been shown that while it 
is usually of advantage to cool the milk imme- 
diately after it is drawn, in some cases, at least, 
the setting and cooling may have been delayed for 
a time long enough to permit the formation of 
fibrin clots without appreciable effects upon the sep- 
aration, as the following tables t very clearly show, 
the efficiency of creaming being measured by the 
percentage of fat in the skimmed milk: 



*Loc. cit. 

t Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, Bull. No. 29, p. 73. 



172 



Milk and Its Products 



Effect 


of delayed . 


setting 


upon 


creaming. 












.2 


I. 

Set at once. 








.2 


^ 

c 






.S-« 


Date, 

1890. 




O 

o 

'A 


-2 

p. 

a 


1 

Id 


i 


i 




1 Dec. 24, p. M. 




13 


40 


3.90 


.35.5 


92 


.57 


2. Dec. 25, a. m. 




8.5 


40 


3.45 


18.5 


86 


.56 


3. Dec. 25, p. m. 




12 


40 


4.05 


37 


86 


.59 


4. Dec. 26, a. m. 




9.75 


40 




29 


88 


.55 


5. Dec. 26, p. m. 




16 


40 


4.10 


36 


90 


.24 


6. Dec. 26, a. m. 




8.25 


40 


4.15 








7. Dec. 26, p. m. 




14 


40 


4.00 








8. Dec. 27, a. m. 




9 


40 


3.90 








Average of all 


11 


40 


3.94 




88 


.50 


Average Nos. 1-5 














.50 





11. 
Delayed— kept warm. 


III. 

Delayed— cooled. 


Date, 
1890. 


3 


1 
1 


1 
p. 

1 


il 
1 


1 

1 


i 
1 


1 

p. 

a 


CM 

1 


1. Dec. 24, p. M. 

2. Dec. 25, a. m. 

3. Dec. 25, p. m. 

4. Dec. 26, a. m. 

5. Dec. 26, p. m. 

6. Dec. 26, a. m. 

7. Dec. 26, p. m. 

8. Dec. 27, a. m. 


24.5 

18.5 

37 

30.25 

36 

37.5 

24 

74 


60 
45 
45 

130 
75 

205 
90 

210 


88 
84 
84 
82 
90 
92 
90 
95 


.59 
.56 
.47 
.68 
.22 
.68 
.49 
.68 


30 

75.5 

61.5 

37.5 
23.5 

74 


60 

220 

60 

205 

90 

210 


68 
62 
74 

58 
65 
64 


.64 
.55 
.53 

.66 
.66 
.51 


Average of all . 
Average Nos. 1-5 
Average ' ' 6-8 




107 


88 


.55 
.50 
.58 




141 


65 


.59 
.57 
.60 



Effect of Delay in Deep Setting System 173 

The milk was divided into three portions ; one was set at 
once, one was delayed for an hour, but kept up to a tempera- 
ture of 92 in a water bath, and the third was put in the open 
air and allowed to cool for an hour before set. In the eases 
of delay, the milk was stirred up just before it was placed in 
the creamer, and all the settings were made in Cooley cans, in 
ice water. 

The trials reported under the same number, with the excep- 
tion of the first and second, are comparable, as they were made 
from different portions of the same samples of milk. In num- 
bers 1 to 5, inclusive, the delayed sample (Column II.) was 
kept warm in a water bath ; in numbers 6 to 8 the milk 
used had been carried about on the route, and the delayed 
sample was heated up after having been allowed to cool. 

From a similar series of experiments Jordan* 
concluded : 

That with herds of ordinary size, it will not be profitable 
to submit to any great inconvenience in order to place the 
milk in ice water immediately after it is drawn. In a half 
hour to an hour, milk does not seem to cool sufficiently to ma- 
terially affect the completeness with which cream will rise. 

In order to overcome certain difficulties that often 
occur in raising- cream by deep setting process, dilu- 
tion of the milk with water has been recommended, 
usually under one of the three following conditions: 

1st. Dilution with one -fourth to one -third of hot 
water, 135° F., and setting in deep cans at a tem- 
perature as low as can be obtained without the use 
of ice, not below 55°. 

2d. Dilution with one -half to equal quantities of 

* Maine Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept. 1890, Part II. page 48. 



174 Milk and Its Products 

cold water, and setting under the same conditions as 
above. 

Both of these being intended as substitutes for the 
use of ice in cool deep setting in the summer time. 

3d. Dilution with one -third to one -fourth of hot 
water (135°), setting in deep cans in ice water (40 F.). 

This last intended to overcome the difficulty of 
complete creaming often found in the fall and early 
winter with the milk of cows far advanced in the 
period of lactation. 

The idea is that the increased fluidity imparted to 
the milk by the water would facilitate the separa- 
tion of the fat globules. During the winters of 
1888-9 and 1889-90 very little ice could be harvested 
through the dairy regions of the northeastern United 
States, and in the summer following this idea* of 
dilution was widely advocated and considerably prac- 
ticed ; but experience and experiment* have shown 
that while dilution may be of some advantage when, 
for lack of a supply of ice or other reasons, it is 
not possible to secure a temperature below 60° F., 
it can in no case be considered a satisfactory sub- 
stitute for setting the cans in water at a tempera- 
ture of 40° F. 

The amount of advantage which may be obtained 
where dilution is practiced, as measured by the per- 
centage of fat in the skimmed milk, is seen in the 
following tables (on pages 175 and 176), taken from 
Bulletin No. 39 of the Cornell University Agricultural 
Experiment Station : 

♦Vermont Agricultural Eiperimeut Station, 4th Ann. Rept. p. 100. 



Effect of Dilution in Beep Setting System 175 



Diluted and undiluted milk se\ 
of 60' 



in water at a temperature 
F. 





1 


1 

i 


Temperatures F. 


1 

a 

% 
a 
a 

<X1 


" 




Diluted. 


Not diluted. 


Date, 
1892. 


i 




1 


1 


1 






P.. 
1- 


n 


11" 
1- 


rel>. 19 . 
'• 19 . 


54 
72 


■s 


84 
84 


.35 


97 

84 


65 
65 


60 
59 


12 
13 


4.2 

4.2 


1.07 


.89 


1.33 


1.09 


" 22 . 
" 22 . 


54 
72 


18 


90 
90 


136 


99 
90 


64 
64 


59.5 
57.5 


12.5 
14.5 


4.2 
4.2 


.52 


.43 


.97 


.77 


" 23 . 
" 23 . 


54 

72 


18 


89 
89 


,33 


101 
89 


66 
66 


60.75 
58.50 


11.25 
13.5 


4.3 
4.3 


.80 


.68 


1.12 


.91 


" 28 . 
'■ 28 . 


54 
72 


18 


88 
88 


134 


98 
88 


57 
57 


58 
57 


14 
15 




.35 


.28 


.65 


.51 


•' 29 . 
" 29 . 


?l 


18 


86 
86 


134 


97 
86 


60 
60 


59.75 
58 


12.25 
14 


4.4 
4.4 


.68 


.56 


1.18 


.95 


Mar. 1 
1 . 


54 

72 


18 


86 
86 


135 


96 
86 


60 
60 


61 

58.5 


11 
13.5 


4.1 
4.1 


.68 


.58 


.96 


.78 


" 13 . 
" 13 . 


54 
72 


18 


86 
86 


135 


96 

86 


60 
60 


60.75 

57.75 


11.25 
14.25 


4.3 
4.3 


.85 


72 


.82 


.66 


" 14 . 
" 14 . 


27 
36 


9 


84 
84 


136 


96 

84 


58 
58 


29.5 
30 


6.5 
6 


3.9 
3.9 


.88 


.72 


1.14 


.95 


" 15 - 
" 15 . 


27 
36 


9 


86 
86 


132 


95 
86 


58 
58 


30 
29.5 


6 
6.5 


3.9 
3.9 


.73 


.61 


1.25 


1.02 


" 26 . 

" 27 . 


27 
36 


9 


88 
88 


136 


101 

88 


56 
56 


29.5 
28.5 


6.5 
7.5 


4.1 
4 1 






.67 


.53 


" 27 . 
" 27 . 


54 
86 


18 


90 

90 


135 


100 
90 


64 
64 


60.25 
30 


11.75 
6 


4.5 
4.5 


.81 


.68 


.70 


.58 


" 28 . 
" 28 - 


27 
36 


9 


88 
88 


136 


102 

88 


61 
61 


31 

30 


5 
6 


4 
4 






1.21 


1.01 


" 31 . 

" 31 . 


27 
36 


9 


87 
87 


135 


102 
87 


62 
62 


30 
29.75 


6 
6.25 


4.1 
4.1 


.93 


.78 


1.17 


.97 


Apr. 2 . 
^' 2 . 


27 
36 


9 


91 
91 


135 


103 
91 


65 
65 


30 
29 


6 

7 


4.7 
4.7 


1.08 


.90 


1.68 


1.35 


4 . 
4 . 


27 
36 


9 


92 
92 


135 


102 
92 


62 
62 


29 
29 . 


7 
7 


4.2 
4.2 


.31 


.25 


.92 


.74 


Average 






• 














.76 


.62 


1.05 


.85 



176 



Milk and Its Products 



Diluted and undiluted milJc Set in water at a temperature of 
40°-45° F. 







1 
® 


Temperatures P. 


1 
Q 

"a 


1 




Diluted. 


Not diluted 


Date, 
1892. 


^ 


i 






o6 




ll 






54 


c3 


i 




02 


O 




o 


r 


(i! 


.M 






Feb. 20 . 


18 


87 


140 


100 


44 


58 


14 


4.4 


.32 


.26 






" 20 . 


72 




87 




87 


44 


54.25 


1^.75 


4.4 






.25 


.19 


" 21 . 


54 


18 


88 


136 


99 


44 


57.5 


14.5 


4.4 


.20 


.16 






" 21 . 


72 




88 




88 


44 


53.75 


18.25 


4.4 






.24 


.18 


" 24 . 


54 


18 


87 


134 


97 


45 


56.25 


15.75 


4.2 


.23 


.18 






" 24 . 


72 




87 




87 


45 


53.5 


18.5 


4.2 






.17 


.13 


" 25 . 


54 


18 


90 


134 


100 


46 


57 


15 


4.4 


.23 


.18 






" 25 . 


72 




90 




90 


46 


54.25 


17.75 


4.4 






.26 


.20 


Mar. 30 . 


27 


9 


86 


135 


100 


44 


29 


7 




.32 


.26 






" 30 . 


36 




86 


86 


44 


27 


9 








.35 


.26 


" 17 . 


27 


9 


88 


136 97 


44 


29 


7 


4.7 


.11 


.09 






" 17 • 


18 




88 




88 


44 


13.5 


4.5 


4.7 






.18 


.14 


" 30 . 


27 


9 


86 


135 


100 


44 


28 


8 


5 


.08 


.06 






" 30 . 


18 




86 




86 


44 


13 


5 


5 






.12 


.09 


Aprils 


27 


9 


90 


138 


103 


46 


29.75 


6.25 


3.3 


.31 


.25 






18 




90 




90 


46 


14.5 


3.5 


3.3 






.28 


.23 


Average 




















.23 


.18 


.23 


.18 



Summing up all of the experiments, the average 
efficiency of creaming as measured by the percent- 
age of fat in the skimmed milk would appear to be 
about as follows : 

Diluted, set at 60'' (39 trials) .77 per cent. 
Undiluted, set at 60° (30 " ) 1.00 " 
" " 40° (26 " ) .29 " 
It would seem, therefore, that while, when the 
milk is set at 60° F. or thereabouts, there is consider 
able advantage, so far as the efficiency of creaming 



Dilution Separator Yll 

is concerned, in diluting it with 25 per cent of warm 
water, this dilution cannot be regarded as a sub- 
stitute for setting without dilution in ice water, and 
it has the further disadvantage of requiring increased 
tank capacity. 

About 1897 the idea that dilution with water is 
an important aid in gravity -creaming broke out with 
renewed activity. It was especially recommended by 
the manufacturers of certain forms of cheap tin cans 
in which dilution was recommended as an essential 
part of the process. These cans were called gravity 
"separators" modified by various high-sounding, 
qualifying phrases, with the evident intention of con- 
veying the idea that this process was as efficient as 
centrifugal separation, and large numbers of the 
"separators" have been sold, mainly to unsuspecting 
or ignorant farmers, who have been deluded into the 
idea that they were securing a contrivance equal in, 
efficiency to a centrifugal separator at a small frac- 
tion of the cost. The form of many of the cans was 
patented, but it was s on show^^* that so far as the 
process is concerned, the patents were valueless, and 
trials at several experiment stations showed that dilu- 
tion in gravity separators, of whatever form, is no 
more efficacious than has been shown above. For 
this reason, and because rifal manufacturers have 
become involved in controversies over their various 
patents, the "dilution separator boom" is, fortunately, 
likely to be of short duration. 

Centrifugal separation. — The invention, develop- 
ment and perfection of the centrifugal separator has 

♦Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulls. 151 and 171. 
L 



178 ' Milh and Its Products 

been the chief factor in revolutionizing methods of 
butter- making. By its greater efficiency it has pre- 
vented otherwise unavoidable losses, and by its greater 
economy of labor it has rendered possible the devel- 
opment of a profitable industry in many localities 
where it would have been otherwise impossible. 

In separating cream in a centrifugal machine, the 
centrifugal force generated in a rapidly revolving 
bowl is made to take the place of the force of grav- 
ity acting upon the milk at rest in a vessel. The 
amount of force generated is so much greater than 
the force of gravity that the separation of the par- 
ticles of fat is much more rapid and much more 
complete. The force, however, acts in a horizontal 
instead of a vertical direction. In 1877, a patent was 
granted to Le Feldt & Lentsch for a machine to sepa- 
rate milk by centrifugal force. This first centrifugal 
separator consisted merely of a series of buckets hung 
upon arms swinging from a central axis. When the 
machine was at rest the buckets assumed a vertical 
position, but in motion they were thrown out horizon- 
tally from the arms. The milk was placed in these 
buckets, the machine set in motion until the cream 
was separated from the skimmed milk, and when the 
machine was allowed to come to a stand- still the 
buckets assumed a vertical position, and the cream 
was removed from the top in the same way that it 
was skimmed from any other vessel. From this was 
evolved a machine consisting of a revolving bowl 
or drum in which the separation takes place, with 
arrangements for removing the skimmed milk and 



structure oj Centrifugal Separator 



179 



cream without stopping the machine, thus making 
the separation continuous. 

This constituted the first practical cream separator. 
It was the invention of Dr. Gustaf de Laval, a 
Swedish inventor. 



j^i. 



I 




The various parts 
of the machine have 
since been much 
improved in minor 
details. At the pres- 
ent time the essen- 
tial parts of a sepa- 
rator are the bowl, 
with or without 
internal devices or 
arrangements to as- 
sist in the separa- 
tion of the cream 
from the milk, an 
outlet for the skimmed milk, an outlet for the cream, 
an inflow for the whole milk, and the proper mechani- 
cal means for revolving the bowl. (The more com- 
mon types of separator bowls are shown in Figs. 
10-13.) Usually the bowl is driven in an upright 
position, but there are separators in which the bowl 
is driven in a horizontal position, and in the greater 
number of machines the walls of the bowl are cylin- 
drical. In the process of separation the milk flows 
into the bowl, and, partaking of the centrifugal force, 
is forced to the extreme outer edge of the bowl. 
As the milk continues to flow in, the bowl begins 



Fig. 21. Dr. Gustaf de Laval, inventor of the 
first practical centrifugal cream separator 



180 



MilJc and Its Products 



to fill from the outside toward the center. The cen- 
trifugal force acting more strongly upon those parts 
of the milk which have the greatest specific gravity, 
they are thrown to the extreme outside, and the 
lighter portions, the fat globules, with whatever may 
adhere to them, are forced to the center. Attached 
to the extreme outer edge of the bowl are one or 
more tubes, which, bending inward along the side of 
the bowl, find an opening near the center. These 
are the outlets for the skimmed milk. From the 
extreme center of the bowl, also leading to the out- 
side, is the cream outlet. When the bowl becomes filled 
with milk, the centrifugal 1/ pressure will force 



out through the skimmed 



milk outlets the milk 




Fig. 22. 

Section of separator bowl of plain 

or "Hollow Bowl" type. 



KJ 



Theory of Centrifugal Separation 181 

nearest the outside of the bowl. These outlets are made 
of such size in comparison with the size of the bowl, 
the speed of the machine, and the size of the inflow 
tube, that they have a capacity of discharging the 
milk from A to .9 as fast as it runs in; the remain- 
ing contents of the bowl are then forced toward the 
center, and find an exit through the cream outlet. 
In this way the milk as it enters is divided into 
two portions: one, the larger, drawn from the ex- 
treme outer portion of the bowl, consisting of 
skimmed milk, and the other, the smaller, escaping 
from the center of the bowl, the cream. A third 
portion also usually accompanies centrifugal sepa- 
ration. A part of the semi-solid constituents of 
the milk, being heavier than the milk serum, are 
thrown- to the outside of the bowl, and adhere to 
the walls in the form of a creamy or gelatinous mass 
which is ordinarily called separator slime. It consists. 
mainly of albuminous matter, with some fat globules 
adhering, and any particles of dirt or foreign mat- 
ter that may be mechanically mixed with the milk. 
It varies greatly at different times and seasons. 
Usually the amount is not large, but not infrequently 
it is sufficient to clog the outlets of the separator 
after a run of an hour or two. The separator slime is 
largely composed of matter deleterious to the qual- 
ity of cream and , butter, and its removal is to a 
great extent a purification of the cream. The various 
conditions affecting this operation are as follows: 

Conditions affecting tJie completeness of separation. — 
The completeness of the separation is dependent upon 



182 Milk and Its Products 

the centrifugal force generated, the rate of inflow, 
the temperature of the milk, and the physical con- 
dition of the milk. 

The amount of centrifugal force generated depends 
upon the diameter of the bowl and the velocity of 
rotation. 

Roughly speaking, the centrifugal force increases 
directly in proportion as the diameter is increased and 
directly with the square of the velocity. The larger 
the bowl, then, and the greater the speed, the greater 
the centrifugal force and the more complete the sep- 
aration. The rate of inflow of milk affects the 
separation, because the separation is more complete 
the longer the milk is subjected to the centrifugal 
force, and the slower the milk flows into a given- 
sized bowl the longer any particle will be in flowing 
through it and the more completely will the cream 
be separated. The temperature of the milk affects 
'the fluidity of the fat globules and their ease of mo- 
tion upon the other particles of the milk; the warmer 
the milk the more easily are they separated. A 
temperature of 76° to 98° F. is the one commonly 
employed because of the effect upon the texture of 
the butter. It is desirable that the milk should be 
separated at as low a temperature as possible without 
interfering with the completeness of the separation, 
so that, other things being equal, that separator is the 
best that separates the milk at the lowest tempera- 
ture.' The physical condition of the milk affects 
separation by the centrifugal in the same ways that 
gravity creaming is affected, but to a very much 



Relative Amount Shimmed Milh and Cream 183 

slighter degree. Small -sized fat globules, viscosity of 
the milk, and coagulation of part of the casein by 
incipient fermentations, all tend to make separation 
more difficult; but in a majority of eases, unless the 
milk is so sour as to be coagulated, it may be completely 
creamed with a centrifugal separator, but will require 
a slower feeding (a reduction of 10 to 15 per cent will 
usually suf&ce), and a higher speed of the bowl, or both. 
Conditions affecting the relative amount of sMmmed 
milh and cream. — The relative amount of skimmed 
milk and cream is affected by the rate of inflow, 
by the speed of the bowl, by various special con- 
trivances upon the machines themselves, and to a 
slight extent by the temperature of the milk. In 
the ordinary machine the size of the skimmed milk 
outlet is fixed, and therefore at a. given velocity the 
outlet will discharge a nearly uniform quantity of 
fluid. If then, the milk is turned into the bowl at 
such a rate that .8 of it escapes through the skimmed 
milk outlet, we shall have .8 skimmed milk and 
.2 cream. If now we reduce the rate of inflow 
by .1, we shall get just as much skimmed milk as 
before, but only one-half as much cream; or if the 
inflow is increased by .1, we shall get the same 
amount of skimmed milk and once and a half as 
much cream. If under the first conditions all of the 
fat was gathered into the cream, we shall have just 
as complete a separation as before, but shall simply 
get a cream containing a greater or less percentage 
of fat, provided that the increase of inflow has not 
increased the total amount above the capacity of the 



184 Milk and Its Products 

machine. In other words, the greater the inflow, 
the more cream and the thinner the cream; the 
smaller the inflow, the less cream and the richer the 
cream. These varations can only take place within 
comparatively narrow limits. If we increase the in- 
flow too much, we shall soon reach a point at which 
the milk passes so rapidly through the machine that 
the separation is not complete, and if we reduce the 
inflow to such a point that the skimmed milk outlet 
has a capacity of discharging the milk as fast as it 
flows in, we shall get a separation until the bowl 
becomes filled, and then all of the milk will pass 
out of the skimmed milk outlet in the same condi 
tion in which it enters the machine. 

The speed of the machine, also, affects the rela- 
tive amount of cream and its percentage of fat. The 
size of the skimmed milk outlet being fixed, the 
faster the bowl is revolved the greater the capacity 
of this outlet will be, so that, the rate of inflow 
remaining uniform, the faster the bowl is revolved 
the less proportional amount of cream we shall have, 
and the richer it will be in fat, and vice versa. It 
must be borne in mind, further, that the speed of 
the bowl is also an important factor in the complete- 
ness of separation, and that if the speed is slackened 
in order to get a greater bulk of cream, there will 
be danger of incomplete separatio.n. 

Most of the machines have arrangements for reg- 
ulating the relative amount of skimmed milk and 
cream without changing the rate of inflow or the 
speed of the machine. In most of the machines 



Modifications in Structure of Bowl 



185 



this arrangement is known as a "cream screw," and 
affects the amount of cream by placing the cream 
outlet nearer or farther from the center of the bowl; 
the nearer the center the cream screw is turned, the 
thicker will be the cream and the smaller the amount. 
Some of the separators change the proportion of 
cream by increasing or decreasing the capacity of the 
skimmed milk outlet. If the capacity of the skim- 
med milk outlet be decreased, necessarily the amount 
of the cream will be increased, and vice versa. 

The temperature of the milk only slightly affects 
the proportion of skimmed milk and cream. The 
warmer the milk, the more fluid it is, and the faster it 
will pass through the various openings of the machine. 
Slightly more milk at 85° will run through the same 
inflow than at 70°, and a large part of this increase 
will be found in the cream. The pressure of the milk 
in the vat above the machine will materially affect the 
rate of inflow, and a few inches will make a difference 
of two or three 

hundred pounds a m. %, b 

per hour on a 
large -sized ma- 
chine. 

Contrivances 
in the howl to 
increase the effi- 
ciency of sepa- 
ration. — In the 

first separators Fig. 23. a, Sectional view of old style "Hollow' 

-, ., , , separator bowl; b. Sectional view of "Alpha -Disc' 

made, the bowl separator bowl. 




186 



Milk and Its Products 




Fig. 24. Section of 
separator bowl of 
" travel " tjrpe. 



aid in the completeness 
of the separation or to 
increase the capacity. 
These contrivances have 
been of two general types : 
one to break np the wall 
of milk, and so give the 
particles of milk and 
cream a better chance to 
pass by one another in 
their passage from the 
center to the outside of 
the bowl; the other, a 
series of interruptions to 



was hollow, and 
the separation 
was caused di- 
rectly by the 
centrifugal pres- 
sure acting upon 
the milk in a 
mass. In the 
later machines, 
various contri- 
vances have 
been introduced 
in the bowl to 




Pig. 25. The Sim- 
plex separator. 



Mechanical Conditions Affecting Reparation 187 



the passage of the milk from its 
entrance at the center to the outside, 
causing it to travel a much greater 
distance and be subjected to the 
centrifugal force for a longer time. 
These contrivances, while adding to 
the complexity of the machine, have 
increased the capacity and the effi- 
ciency of the separation. The best 
known of these contrivances are the 
so-called ^' Alpha" discs or 





Fig. 27. United States separator. 



Fig. 26. Parts of United States 
separator bowl. 

plates, — a series of cup- 
shaped plates, nearly fill- 
ing the bowl of the 
separator. These Alpha 
plates nearly double the 
separating capacity of 
the hollow bowl of the 



188 



Milk and Its Products 



same diameter, and at the same time the efficiency of 
separation is increased. 

In the latest developments in separator construction 
various other devices intended to secure the same end 




Fig. 28. Tubular separator 

have been more or less successfully used. Among the 
more recent of these the simplex (Fig. 25) and the 
tubular (Fig. 28) should be mentioned. The latter has 
been particularly successful in securing efficiency by 
making the bowl very long and of verj- small diameter 
and running it at a comparatively high speed. 



Mechanical Conditions Affecting Separation 189 



Mechanical conditions which affect separ- 
ation. — Certain peculiarities in the con- 
struction or operation of the machine 
often materially influence the efficiency of 
separation. One of the most important of e 
these is that the bowl should run steadily 
and smoothly, without any preceptible jar 
or trembling. The trembling 
jJL of the bowl may be caused by 
*■* lack of perfect balancing in the 

• bowl itself. This can be rem- 
edied only by the manufacturer. 
The bowl may tremble, also, 
because the bearings are not 
perfectly adjusted; and, lastly, 
the bowl may tremble because 
the machine is not set level or 
upon a solid foundation. Often 
a bowl will tremble somewhat 
while it is speeding up but 
will run smoothly when full ^ 
speed is attained; such a bowl, 
however, will seldom work as /\ 
perfectly as one that is so 
balanced that it will run at 
any and all speeds without 
^^ perceptible jar. A second 
g cause of inefficient separa- 
H ation is variation in the 



65- 



27, 



Fig. 



Section of 



tubular separator, 
skim milk vent; B, cream 
vent; C, milk inlet; D, 
-n- on . n 1 T 1 T • wing ; 3, bowl ; 4, bowl 

J^ig. 29. velOCltV of the bowl. It is bottom; 5, dividing wall; 

Parts Of tubu- " . , , J^ *^/^^^^®k = H'^^'^^fi^ 

larbowi. quite as important that the ^^^1%^"^ *"^^= ^' "^^^°^ 



190 Milk and Its Products 

bowl run UDiformly as it is that it attain any given 
rate of velocity. In this respect the turbine separators 
are more likely to be at fault than those run by belt 
power, and separators turned by hand are more subject 
to variations than those run by power. 

An engine of ample power, with a good governor, 
and the powder transmitted through an intermediate rope 
belt kept perfectly tightened, with well-oiled bearings 
all around, are the best safeguards to uniform speed. 

Efficiency of separation in centrifugal machines. — 
With the centrifugal separator run under perfect con- 
ditions, there is still a slight loss of fat in the 
skimmed milk. This should not be greater than .1 
of 1 per cent. At the present time it is considered 
that where as much as .1 of 1 per cent of fat is left 
in the skimmed milk a centrifugal machine is doing 
such poor work that its use in a commercial plant would 
be unwarranted. The following tables* taken from the 
average of a large number of tests made by several agri- 
cultural experiment stations may be taken as repre- 
senting the degree of efficiency that had been attained 
by the leading manufacturers at the time when separa- 
tors first came into general use (1890-95) and the first 
table is compiled wholly from American sources. At 
the present time no separator should be kept in use 
that will leave more than two or three hundredths of 
one per cent of fat in the skimmed milk in a series of 
tests running day after day under ordinary factory 
conditions. 

*Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 105. 



Relative Efficiency of Separators 



191 











Per cent of fat in skimmed milk. 


Name of macMne. 


Average. 


Minimum. 






By series. 


Of all 
trials. 


Maximum. 


Accumulator 
Alexandra Jumb( 
Columbia . . 
Danish Weston 
DeLaval . . . 


) 






.12 
.22 
.09 
.10 
.13 
.27. 
.18 
.21 


.11 
.22 
.12 
.08 
.09 
.16 
.12 
.16 


.01 
.15 
.05 
.01 
.01 
.05 
.01 
.05 


.20 
.33 
.34 
.25 
.50 


Sharpies . . . 
United States . 
Victoria .... 


. 


.65 
.60 
.38 









A series of trials made in Germany* shows a con- 
siderable variation in the various styles, and, on the 
whole, a rather less efficiency than has been obtained 
in this country, as is seen in the table following: 



Name of machine. 


Revolutions 
of bowl 
per min- 
ute. 


Pounds 
separated 
per hour. 


Tempera- 
ture of 
milk F. 


Per cent 

of fat in 

skimmed 

milk. 


Number 
of trials. 


Alpha B • • • 
Alpha Baby . . 

Baby 

Victoria . 
Small Danish . 
Large Danish . 
Adjustable . . . 
Arnold's . . . 
Medium Brown 


5,100 
6,900 
6,360 

7,*241 

7,217 
8,640 
8,531 
4,037 


537 
2.86 
129 
205 
288 
411 
363 
458 
268 


92 
72 
88 
92 
90 
91 
70 
90 
91 


.23 
.23 

.18 
.17 
.28 
.35 
.10 
.28 
.37 


37 
23 
15 
19 
16 
16 
3 
26 
16 



But while all the forms of separators can be made 
to do perfect work, there is more or less variation 



♦Mileh Zeitung, xxiii., p. 



192 



Milk and Its Products 



in the work done by the different machines of the 
same style and manufacture. This variation is due 
to slight peculiarities in the construction of the in- 
dividual bowls, and which cannot be detected by 
the ordinary senses, and only appear upon an ex- 
amination of the skimmed milk after actual use. 
These differences are well illustrated in a series of 
trials made in different factories,* and shown in- 
detail in the following tables: 



ALEXANDRA JUMBO 

Bated capacity, 2,000 pounds per hour 













Average 




Pounds 






No. 


of 


Average 


Range 


speed of 


Range 


sepa- 


Per cent 


Date. 


of 
fac- 


milt 
in whole 


temper- 
ature. 


of 
temper- 


bowl, 
revolu- 


of 
speed. 


rated 
per 


of -fat in 
skimmed 




tory. 


run. 




ature. 


tions per 
minute. 




hour. 


milk. 


Aug. 19. 


7 


3,809 


70 


66-75 


7,200 


7,000-7,400 


1,344 


.25 


" 20. 


8 




70 


68-72 


6,985 


6,800-7,200 


1,170 


.15 


" 20. 


8 




70 


68-72 


6,585 


6,300-6,900 


1,611 


.20 


" 21. 


9 


5,928 


75 


72-81 


6,900 


6,600-7,100 


1,882 


.20 


" 23. 


11 


4,052 


84 1 80-86 


6,600 


6,200-7,400 


1,814 


.33 


Average 






74 


. . . . 


6,854 




1,564 


'>3 









DE LAVAL, ALPHA NO. 1 

Bated capacity, 2,500 pounds x>€r hour 



July 17. 
Aug. 18. 
Sep. 16. 

'^ 20. 

" 21. 
Oct. 4. 

" 4. 

Average 



3 


2,519 


80 


78-85 


5,520 


6 


3,629 


74 


73-76 


5,806 


17 


1,187 


72 


71-73 


5,933 


22 


4,627 


82 


80-83 


6,071 


23 


6,376 


78 


77-80 


6,044 


24 


5,588 


82 


78-85 


5,844 


25 


1,802 


86 


85-90 


6,280 






79 




5,928 







4,800-6,100 2,606 

5,700-6,000 2,592 

5,800-6,000 2,456 

5,800-6,200 2,501 

6,000-6,200 2,500 

5,600-6,000: 2,747 

6,000-6,400! 2,040 



2,491 



.04 
.03 
.13 
.03 



'Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 105. 



Variations in Machines of Same Style 193 



Bated capacity, No. 



DE LAVAL, BABY 

350; No. 3, 600 pounds per hour 



Date. 


No. 
of 
fac- 
tory. 


Pounds 

of 

milk in 

vrhole 

run. 


Average 
temper- 
ature. 


Range 

of 
temper- 
ature. 


Average 
speed of 
bowl, 
revolu- 
tions per 
minute. 


Range 

of 
speed. 


Pounds 
separ- 
ated 
per 
hour. 


Per cent 

of fat in 

skimmed 

milk. 


May 31. 

Sep. 14. 
'^ 18. 


1 
14 
19 


205 
146 


96 
83 


81-86 


Rev. crank 
54 
46 
46 




362 
303 


.05 
.06 
.16 




Average 






90 


.... 


49 




333 


.09 



DE LAVAL, STANDARD 

Bated capacity, 1,100 pounds per hour 



Sep. 19. 
'^ 19. 
" 19. 


21 
21 
21 


— 


73 
73 
72 


71-75 
71-75 
71-75 


Rev. bowl 
7,914 
8,140 
8,300 


7,700-8,200 
7,600-8,400 
8,000-8,500 


1,020 

930 

1,000 


.25 
.15 
.16 


Average 






73 




8,118 





983 


19 









SHARPLES RUSSIAN 

Bated capacity, Standard, 1,100 pounds ; Imperial, 
per hour 



^,,000 pounds 



July 16. 


2 





84 


83-87 


7,775 


7,700-7,900 


2,100 


.40 


July 16. 


2 




88 


87-88 


7,183 


7,000-7,500 


2,130 


.65 


Aug. 17. 


5 


1,718 


80 


78-82 


7,800 


7,700-7,900 


1,874 


.10 


Aug. 24. 


12 


4,028 


81 


80-82 


7,700 


7,100-8,300 


1,033 


.05 


Sept. 14. 


13 


2,509 


85 


84-86 


7,433 


6,800-7,600 


1,158 


.13 


Sept. 17. 


18 


3,562 


87 


82-95 


7,558 


7,200-7,900 


1,752 


.45 


Oct. 6. 


18 


2.716 


90 


87-91 


7,675 


7,400-7,900 


1,873 


.38 


Average 







85 


. . . . 


7,589 




1,703 


.31 



UNITED STATES 

Bated capacity, 2,000 pounds per hour 



July 18. 
Aug. 22. 
Sept. 15. 
Sept. 15. 
Sept. 18. 


4 
10 
15 
16 
20 




83 
81 
94 

88 
78 


82-84 
79-91 
90-98 
80-100 

77-80 


7,120 
7,025 
7,600 
6,075 
6,586 


7,000-7,200 
6,800-7,300 
7,200-8,000 
5,600-6,600 
6,400-6,800 


2,220 
1,964 
1,403 
1,650 
2,176 


.18 
.25 
.08 
.38 
.60 


3,962 
1,870 
3,850 
2,902 


Average 






85 




6,881 




1,883 


.30 



M 



194 Milk and Its Products 

These slight differences in individual bowls are 
common to all of the different kinds of machines, so 
far as is known, and this being the case, it is al- 
ways due to the purchaser that he should secure from 
the manufacturer a guarantee that any given ma- 
chine will do work of a certain grade of efficiency. 

Other desirable and undesirable features of a sepa- 
rator.— Other things being equal, that separator is the 
best which will skim clean at the lowest temperature 
and with the least number of revolutions per min- 
ute. Other details of construction being equally 
good, and the capacities being the same, that separator 
will run the easiest whose diameter is least. A ma- 
chine of small diameter not only runs easier, but is 
less easily thrown out- of balance. The cream should 
be delivered in a smooth stream of uniform density, 
and the cream outlet should be of such form that 
a heavy cream may pass through it without danger 
of clogging. The bowl should be so constructed that 
all parts may be readily reached with the hand and 
thoroughly and easily cleaned. 



CHAPTER X 

THE RIPENING OF CREAM 

By the ripening process is meant all the treatment 
which the cream receives from the time that it is sep- 
arated from the milk until it is put into the churn. 
Upon this treatment, and the changes that the cream 
undergoes, very largely depend the quality of the butter 
as regards texture and flavor. The texture of the 
butter is very largely influenced by the changes of tem- 
perature that are brought about during the ripening 
process. It seems to be essential to the production of 
a firm, solid texture in the butter that the cream, at 
some time during the ripening process, should be sub- 
jected to a constant temperature below 50° F. for sev- 
eral hours. When cream 'has been separated by a 
gravity process, particularly by a "deep setting" one, 
it has already experienced the effects of such a tem- 
perature, and is ready for ripening as soon as re- 
moved from the milk. But when cream is separated 
by a centrifugal separator, the temperature as it comes 
from the separator is rather high, and butter of good 
texture cannot be made unless the cream is cooled 
down and held cool for several hours before ripening 
has far advanced. The first step, then, in the ripen- 
ing process with separator cream is to reduce its 

(195) 



196 Milk and Its Products 

temperature as rapidly and as uniformly as possible 
to at least 50° F., and to hold it there for as long 
a time as is convenient, usually six to eight hours. 
Another point which influences the texture of the 
butter depends upon the rapidity with which the vari- 
ous changes of temperature are made, and the ex- 
tremes of temperature that are used. That butter will 
have the best texture which has seen the fewest pos- 
sible changes of temperature between the time the milk 
is drawn from the cow and the time it is churned, 
and in which also all the necessary changes of tem- 
perature have been made most gradually. Not only 
will such butter have the best texture at low tem- 
peratures, but it will stand the effects of high tem- 
peratures better. In other words, it " stands up " 
under the heat better than butter that during the pro- 
cess of manufacture has been subject to sudden and 
great changes of temperature, although the final result 
may have been to keep it at a low temperature. 
The effects of ripening are more important and more 
marked upon the flavor of the butter than upon the 
texture. It is during the ripening that the charac- 
teristic flavors of the butter are largely brought out. 
It is not necessary to the manufacture of the butter 
itself that the cream be ripened at all. Butter may 
be made from cream just as soon as it is separated 
from the milk, but it will be of a distinctly different 
quality from that made from ripened cream. By 
ripening in the ordinary sense is meant the produc- 
tion of lactic acid in the cream. 

In some attempts to substitute other acids for 



Origin of Butter Flavors 197 

lactic acid in ripening, Tiemann* found that in cream 
to which a small amount of hydrochloric acid had 
been added there was no difficulty in churning the 
butter, that the general flavor of the butter was 
good, but that it lacked in aroma and had a some- 
what oily texture. 

There is some doubt as to the origin of the 
characteristic flavors which are developed in the cream 
during the ripening process. These flavors are un- 
doubtedly due to the presence of certain volatile sub- 
stances — fats, bacterial products, or ether -like com- 
pounds — which are formed during the ripening pro- 
cess. It was formerly supposed that the production 
of the characteristic flavors was almost wholly a pro- 
cess of oxidation, and that cream, in order to be prop- 
erly ripened, and to develop the best flavors, must be 
supplied with an abundance of oxygen in pure air 
during the process. Our knowledge of the presence of, 
germs in milk and cream and the effect of their 
growth upon the various constituents of the milk, has 
led us to modify these views. At the present time it 
seems probable that the growth of germs which pro- 
duce lactic acid has much to do with the production 
of the characteristic flavors of ripened cream. It has 
been asserted by some, notably Conn, that the produc- 
tion of the flavors is due to the growth of specific 
flavor -producing germs that are largely independent of 
the formation of lactic acid, but this view does not 
seem to explain all of the phenomena of the appear- 

♦Mileh Zeitung, xxiii p. 701. 



198 Milk and Its Products 

ance of such flavors, and it is by no means certain 
that the flavors are not in part produced as the result 
of direct oxidation. It is found in practice that the 
regulation of the production of lactic acid is the 
chief means in controlling the flavor. 
V The means of jwodiicing lactic acid. — In order that 
the milk or cream should ripen, or become sour, it 
is necessary that germs of lactic acid fermentations 
should gain access to it, and that a temperature favor- 
able to their normal development should be secured. ^ 
The presence of the germs may be left to chance 
inoculation, or they maj^ be artificially supplied. 
Under ordinary conditions, by the time the cream has 
been separated from the milk, there will have reached 
it a sufficient number of germs of fermentation to 
cause a rapid production of lactic acid, though the 
number will vary from day to day and from time to 
time, and a certain amount of acid cannot be de- 
pended upon within any given specified time. The 
inoculation is more certain, and the desired degree 
of acidity will be more surely reached, at the end 
of a given time, if the germs are added in suffi- 
cient quantity artificially. The source of the inocu- 
lation may be buttermilk or cream from preceding 
churnings, or it may be in the form of an artificially 
prepared "starter" of sour skimmed milk, or it may 
be in the form of any of the so-called commercial 
lactic ferments. It is desirable that none but the 
proper germs should find access to the milk, and 
in relying upon natural means there is always more 
or less danger that putrefactive and other undesirable 



Commercial Lactic Ferments 199 

ferments may gain access to the cream. As between 
the various forms of artificial starter, there is not 
much to be said. It is generally held .that a starter 
made from skimmed milk is less likely to contain 
germs other than those desired than when cream, 
whole milk, or even buttermilk are used. 

With regard to the use of the various commer- 
cial bacterial ferments, there is considerable diversity 
of opinion. Their use was first recommended several 
years ago in Denmark, as a result of the researches 
of Storch, and has grown rapidly, both in Denmark 
and Germany, until at the present time a large part 
of the butter produced in the former country is made 
from cream first pasteurized, and then ripened with 
the aid of an artificial bacteria culture. The use 
of such ferments has now largely extended to this 
country, also chiefly through the medium of Hansen's 
lactic ferment. . 

In this country Conn has been the chief investi- 
gator of similar organisms. From 1890 to 1893* he 
isolated several organisms, the culture of which in 
cream improved the flavor of the resulting butter 
to a greater or less extent. In the latter year he 
discovered in a can of milk sent from Uruguay to 
the World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago, a 
germ so much better in this respect that it alone 
has since been used, and cultures of it placed upon 
the market under the name of B.41 (Bacillus No. 41). 

A series of investigations by Farrington and Rus- 

♦Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station, Reports 1890-93. 



200 



Milk and Its Products 



sell,* in which a large number of samples of butter 
were made from cream ripened by the use of B. 41, 
and in the ordinary way, or " normally," and sub- 
mitted to the judgment of several experts who were 
ignorant of the process of manufacture, led to the 
conclusion that the "Conn culture, B. 41, did not 
improve the flavor of the separator butter ripened 
for one day at a high temperature, or of that ripened 
for a longer time at a lower temperature ; on the 
contrary, the score of the fresh B. 41 butter by 
the different judges was, in the majority of cases, 
materially lower than that of normal butter. * ^i* * 
With separator butter in cold storage, that made with 
B. 41 deteriorated less than did the normal butter. 
When taken from storage there was but little differ- 
ence in flavor between these two butters, although 
the normal butter when fresh scored higher." 

The difference in the flavor of the two kinds of 
butter when fresh, as indicated by the different 
judges, is shown in the table: 



General 
average 
scores. 



Number of butter packages 
scored 

Average score of normal but- 
ter 

Average score of B. 41 butter. 

Difference in favor of normal 
butter 



Gurler. 


Barber. 


Moore. 


14 

44.4 
43.7 


14 

45.3 
44 


12 

45.1 
43 


.7 


1.3 


2.1 



45.3 
43.9 



1.4 



♦Wisconsin Aericultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 48. 



Propagation of Starters 201 

On the other hand, a considerable number of fac- 
tories in this country have secured an increased flavor 
and quality in their product from ripening their 
cream with the aid of either Hansen's ferment or B. 41. 

The use of culture starters both for the ripening of 
cream and the ripening of milk for cheese -making has 
now become almost universal, particularly in factories, 
and practice in the culture of such starters is a neces- 
sary part of the training of all successful butter and 
cheese makers (see Appendix A). Skill in the culture 
of starters depends very largely in keeping everything 
surrounding them bacteriologically clean, so that, no 
matter how skilfully directions for the propagation of 
starters may be written, very few will learn except 
by actual experience the necessity for bacteriological 
cleanliness. 

The only reason for a starter becoming impure or 
going "off flavor" is that it becomes contaminated 
from some outside source, and this comes from lack of 
care in handling it or allowing it to come in contact 
with some person or thing that is not sterile or "bac- 
teriologically clean;" hence, in tasting or otherwise 
examining a starter from which a culture is afterward 
to be made, a portion should always be removed from 
the starter with a clean spoon or other suitable article, 
and such portion must be discarded after the examina- 
tion has been made. The practice of dipping the fin- 
ger into a starter and then tasting or smelling it is 
the best possible means of destroying it. 

Where a starter is properly and carefully propa- 
gated, it is not only possible to keep it for a long time, 



202 Milk an'd Its Products 

perhaps indefinitely, but such a starter will often 
improve in flavor qualities, particularly if propagated 
continuously in clean, sound, fresh, whole or skimmed 
milk. Many butter makers employ to advantage the 
practice of cultivating continuously in suitable small 
glass vessels several "mother" starters, from which 
they make selections from day to day of the best 
flavored for use in ripening. 

The use of starters in ripening has another advan- 
tage in that it makes it possible to first pasteurize the 
cream before ripening and so get rid of or reduce the 
effect of any undesirable fermentations that may be 
already present. This is of particular advantage where 
many lots of cream from many sources are brought to 
a central factory for churning. Such creams vary 
very much, even where, as is not often the case, none 
are already actually contaminated with some actually 
bad fermentation. By pasteurization and ripening with 
a good, pure culture starter, such creams can be made 
into butter of a good, uniform quality that would be 
entirely impossible without pasteurization. 

The amount of starter used will vary from 2 to 50 
per cent. Where a small amount is used, the purpose 
is to start and encourage the development of lactic 
acid through the whole mass of cream. Hence some 
time must elapse before the full effect of the starter is 
secured. Where a large amount is used, the purpose 
is not so much to encourage the formation of the acid 
as it is to impart directly the flavor already developed 
in the acid of the starter itself. 

The purer, the fresher, and the better flavored the 



Temperature of Ripening 203 

cream is, the smaller the amount of starter it is desir- 
able to use. Large amounts of starter should be used 
only in old, unsound or tainted creams. 

Temperature of ripe^iing. — The various germs of 
lactic fermentations find their optimum growth point 
at from 80° to 90° F., and milk or cream kept at those 
temperatures will most rapidly become sour. The 
effect of such high temperatures, while favorable to 
the production of lactic acid, is less favorable to 
the texture of the butter, and on this account it is 
desirable to ripen the cream at as low a tempera- 
ture as will insure a fairly rapid growth of the lactic 
germs. A temperature of from 60° to 70° F. will 
ordinarily bring this about. The amount of acid de- 
veloped in any given length of time will depend not 
only upon the temperature at which the cream has 
been kept, but also upon the number and activity of 
the germs originally present, so that if we have a 
thorough inoculation to start with, a lower temper- 
ature will be sufficient to cause the development of 
the requisite amount of acid ; but if only a slight 
inoculation is present, a higher temperature will be 
necessary. Ordinarily, there will be more germs 
present in the atmosphere during the warm months 
than in the winter, consequently a lower temperature 
will bring about the same degree of acidity in a 
shorter time in summer than in winter. 

The amount of acid necessary: — The amount of 
acid that it is desirable to have in the cream at 
the time of churning depends, of course, largely upon 
the flavors desired by the consumer. It is important 



204 Milk and Its Products 

that whatever amount is desired should be uniform 
from day to day. By far the larger proportion of 
consumers prefer the flavors that are characteristic of 
ripening till sufficient acid to slightly coagulate the 
casein is present. Consumers of delicate taste 
readily distinguish between the flavors due to a 
greater or less amount of acid, and it is highly de- 
sirable that some means of determining the amount 
of acid present be available. The butter -maker of 
trained senses has little difficulty in distinguishing by 
the somewhat thickened and glistening appearance of 
his cream, when stirred, the proper condition of the 
cream for churning. Besides this, there are, fortunately, 
more exact means for determining the acidity. 

Acid tests. — Dr. A. G. Manns first suggested the 
use of an alkali of known strength to determine the 
proper acidity of cream for churning, and devised 
what is known as Manns' acid test. It simply con- 
sisted in neutralizing the acid in the cream with a 
standard alkali, the standard used being that known 
to chemists as decinormal, or "lo", and the acidity was 
reckoned in terms of cubic centimeters of alkali re- 
quired to neutralize the acid in a given quantity of 
cream. In the use of this test, an indicator which 
changes color according as the medium is acid or 
alkaline, is used. A convenient indicator is phenol- 
phthalein, which is colorless in acid solutions and 
pinkish in alkaline. Later, Professor Farrington* 
devised tablets containing a known amount of alkali 

♦Bull. 32, ni. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 52, Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta. 



Determination of Lactic Acid 205 

for the same purpose, known as Farrington's alkaline 
tablets. Each tablet contains an amount of alkali 
equal to 3.8 cubic centimeters of decinormal alkali, 
and a sufficient amount of phenolphthalein indicator. 
The cream to be tested is measured, and to it is 
added a solution of the tablets (one tablet in ten 
cubic centimeters of water) until the cream retains a 
pinkish tinge. The tablet solution should always 
be fresh, not more than ten hours old. The tab- 
lets themselves will keep indefinitely. The proper 
degree of acidity is indictated when 30-35 c. c. of 
Farrington tablet solution, or 11-13 c. c. of deci- 
normal alkali, are required to neutralize the acid in 
20 cubic centimeters of cream. 

Determination of lactic acid in milk or cream. — Far- 
rington' s alkaline tablets may also be conveniently 
used to determine the percentage of lactic acid in any 
given sample of milk or cream. In order to do this, 
it is only necessary to understand that equal volumes 
of normal or decinormal acids and alkalies neutral- 
ize each other; and further, that a normal solu- 
tion of lactic acid contains 90 grams of acid in each 
liter, or 1,000 c. c. A decinormal solution would 
contain 1-10 as much, or 9 grams in each liter, 
and a cubic centimeter would contain ttoVo as much 
as a liter, or .009 grams of lactic acid. Each 
tablet of the Farrington alkali is equal in strength 
to 3.8 c. c. of decinormal alkali, and if the tablet 
solution is made by dissolving 10 tablets in 100 c. c. 
of water, each cubic centimeter of the solution will 
be equal to .38 c. c. of decinormal alkali, and will 



206 Milk and Its Products 

therefore neutralize .38 of .009 grams, or .0034 

grams, of lactic acid. 
^Il To determine the percentage of acid in any 

ci given sample of milk or cream, any convenient 
amount, as 20 c. c, o£ the sample to be tested 
is measured out, and the tablet solution is 
added from a burette or graduated cylinder till 
the milk retains a pinkish tinge. If this occurs 
when 1 c. c. of the tablet solution has been 
added, the 20 c. c. of milk contain .0034 grams 
of lactic acid; but 20 c. c. of milk weigh 20.64 
grams (sp. gr. milk, 1.032), therefore the per- 
centage of lactic acid is .0034^20.64=. 00017, 
or .017 per cent. If more than 1 c. c. of 
the tablet solution is required to neutralize 
the acid, or if more or less than 20 c. c. of 
milk or cream are taken, the percentage of 
acid will be found by multiplying the number 
of cubic centimeters of tablet solution 
required by .0034 and dividing by the 
number of grams of milk taken (grams 
of milk=c. c. X 1.032). 

r ig. ox. 

Stte Further effects of ripening. — Besides 
affecting the flavor, it is believed that 
ripening aids in the ease of churning, in the 
completeness of churning, and in improving 
the keeping quality of the resulting butter. It 
was formerly supposed that sweet cream could 
not be churned into butter, and, in fact, with ^ 

but a moderate percentage of fat (15 to 20 cS-adua- 
per cent) it does churn with much more diffi- JyUnder! 



C.C. 

62»F. 



Effects of Churning Cream 207 

eulty than the same cream after it has been ripened; 
but since the introduction of the separator, and the 
consequent production of a much heavier cream, it 
has been found that sweet cream can be churned into 
butter quite as readily as ripened cream. In cream 
containing but a moderate amount of fat, it is neces- 
sary to reduce the temperature from six to eight 
degrees, in order to churn it sweet. The difference in 
the keeping quality of ripened and sweet cream butter 
is likewise not so great as it was formerly supposed to 
be. In fact, sweet cream butter, if properly made and 
kept, will in a short time very closely approach the 
qualities of ripened cream butter. 

Effects of churning cream of different degrees of 
ripeness. — If parcels of cream of different degrees 
of ripeness are mixed together and then churned, it 
will be found that the different creams will churn 
differently. One will produce butter in a shorter 
time than another, or with less agitation. The con- 
sequence is that when this occurs the churn is 
stopped before the churning is completed, and much 
fat is lost in the buttermilk. It is a matter of 
considerable practical importance, so far as loss of 
fat is concerned, and to some extent also upon the 
flavor of the butter, that all of the cream churned 
at one time should be ripened together, evenly and 
uniformly. If creams of different ages are to be 
churned together they should be mixed together at 
least twelve hours before churning, so that the con- 
dition of acidity shall be the same throughout the 
whole mass. 



208 Milk and Its Products 

Bad effects of over-ripening. — When too much lactic 
acid is developed in the cream the casein is firmly 
coagulated, and in the process of churning is broken 
up into minute granules, which become incorpo- 
rated into the butter in the form of white specks or 
flakes of casein. Such white specks, besides injur- 
ing the appearance of the butter, greatly detract 
from its keeping qualities, as the putrefactive fer- 
mentations soon set up in them and give rise to 
disagreeable flavors. Danger from this source is 
liable to be present if the coagulation of the cream 
has gone so far that any whey has separated. The 
cream should in all cases be churned before the ripen- 
ing process has reached this point. It was formerly 
supposed, and is still generally believed, that the pro- 
duction of an excess of lactic acid in ripening tends 
to a loss of butter, from the fact that the acid 
dissolved or "cut" the fat, causing it to disappear. 
This has been shown, both theoretically and practi- 
cally, not to be the case. Lactic acid has no appre- 
ciable effect upon fat, so far as dissolving or decom- 
posing it is concerned, and cream may be held until 
the whey has separated to the full extent without 
any loss in the amount of butter that it is possible 
to churn from it. The chief evil effect in over- 
ripening is in the production of strong and undesir- 
able flavors accompanying the undue production of 
lactic acid. 

Where the cream is made from milk that has been 
produced under uncleanly conditions, or has been care- 
lessly handled, or where the cream itself has been 



The Effects of Over -Ripening 209 

transported for loug distances and subjected to 
many vicissitudes, bad flavors are much more likely 
to show themselves again, if the ripening process is 
carried too far, even though they may have been par- 
tially removed by pasteurization. Such cream should 
be watched carefully and churned with a moderate 
development of acid. 



CHAPTER XI 

CHURNING 

The process of causing the particles of butter fat 
to unite into masses, so that they may readily be 
separated from the milk serum, is called churning. 
Such union of the particles of fat is ordinarily 
brought about by agitation of the cream in a suit- 
able vessel, called a churn. If milk or cream be 
agitated at a temperature somewhat below the melt- 
ing point of butter fat, the particles of fat, as they 
pass by one another, agglutinate themselves into 
masses, and, the process being continued, the fii'st 
formed masses continue uniting, until finally the 
whole body of fat may be brought together in a prac- 
tically solid mass. The conditions influencing the 
separation of fat in this way are, first, the viscosity 
of the milk ; second, the ripeness of the cream ; 
third, the temperature; fourth, the nature of the 
agitation; fifth, the quality of the globules of fat. 

The viscosity of the milk. — The viscosity of the 
milk affects the churning, in that it tends to keep 
the particles of fat from moving freely upon one 
another, and in that the viscous portions of the 
milk, notably some of the albuminous matter, form a 
more or less ^ense layer about the fat globules. 

(210) 



Temperature of Churning 211 

tending to keep them apart. The more viscous the 
milk, then, the greater the difficulty with which it 
will churn. 

The ripeness of the cream. — The ripeness of the 
cream affects the churning, largely because of its 
effect upon the viscosity of the milk. The produc- 
tion of lactic acid in milk always has the tendency 
to render it less viscous, and sour milk or cream, 
therefore, will churn more readily than sweet for 
this reason. The viscosity of the milk must be 
distinguished from the thickness of the milk, due 
to the coagulation of the casein. Souring of the 
milk renders it less viscous, but at the same time 
by coagulating the casein renders it thicker and 
less fluid. 

The temperature. — The temperature is the most im- 
portant condition affecting churning. Whether the 
particles of fat shall unite as they pass by one 
another when the liquid is in motion, depends very 
largely upon their temperature and degree of plas- 
ticity. If the temperature is too low, the globules 
of fat are so hard that when they hit one another 
they do not stick together. If, on the other hand, 
the temperature is too high, the effect of agita- 
ting the globules of fat is, instead of causing them 
to unite, to break them up into still smaller glob- 
ules, and so render the emulsion more permanent. 
The range of temperature through which the parti- 
cles of fat may be made to unite is considerable. 
The extreme limits may be placed at from 46° to 
80° F. But while butter may be churned from 



212 Milk and Its Products 

milk or cream through this wide range of tempera- 
ture, the quality of the butter is very seriously af- 
fected. The butter is in the best condition when it 
is churned at such a temperature that the particles 
of fat unite readily, and when united form firm 
masses or granules of butter. The temperature at 
which this desirable end is brought about varies 
under a wide range of conditions, the most impor- 
tant of which are the following: The individuality of 
the animal ; the period of lactation ; the nature of 
the food of the cows ; the season of the year. 
These conditions are all conditions which affect the 
melting point of the butter fat. The higher the 
melting point of the fat, the higher the tempera- 
ture at which the milk should be churned, and the 
lower the melting point of the fat, the lower the 
churning temperature. Any condition which tends 
to make the butter fat hard will necessarily be fol- 
lowed by a rise in the churning temperature, and 
any condition which tends to make the butter fat 
soft will for the same reason be followed by a 
fall in the churning temperature. It is impossible, 
then, to name any single temperature which is the 
best or even the proper one at which to churn ; 
but while there is a considerable range of tempera- 
ture, which under different conditions may give the 
best results, still this range is not so wide as the 
range of temperature at which it is possible to 
churn, and the limits may perhaps be placed at from 
50° to 66° F. In general, the lowest temperature 
compatible with securing butter in a reasonable 



The Nature of the Agitation 213 

length of time will give butter of the best quality. 
The lower the temperature at which the butter is 
churned, other things being equal, the more com- 
pletely will the butter be removed from the butter- 
milk, the longer will be the time required for churn- 
ing, and the less casein will be found in the butter. 
The nature of the agitation. — It is generally be- 
lieved that the best results follow from agitating 
the cream in such a way that the particles of fat 
are subject to more or less concussion, though it 
is not at all necessarj^ that this concussion should 
take place. Mere gentle stirring of the cream, if 
continued long enough, will bring butter, and agi- 
tating the cream by passing bubbles of air through 
it will also cause it to churn. Many churns have 
been devised which bring about the churning by 
agitating the cream with floats or paddles, and in 
the old-fashioned dash churn there was a minimum 
amount of concussion, the motion being largely that 
of stirring. Where the agitation is brought about 
by the use of paddles or stirring instruments, the 
texture of the butter is usually injured, because of 
the effect of the stirring motion upon the grain of 
the first particles of butter formed. The best churns, 
then, are entirely hollow vessels, barrel or box, 
which bring about agitation of the cream through 
concussion of the particles upon the sides of the 
rotating churn. The churning depends, also, upon 
\he rate of agitation; the faster the motion to 
which the particles of cream are subjected, the 
quicker will be the churning. In this respect the 



214 



Milk and Its Products 



motion of the particles and the motion of the chum 
must not be confounded. If the motion of the chum 
is increased so that sufficient centrifugal force is gen- 
erated to cause the particles of cream to partake of 




Fig. 33 Barrel power clmrn. 



the motion of the churn, then, though the particles 
may pass through space at a greater rate of speed, 
the motion of the particles upon each other will be 
lessened. A maximum motion of the particles upon 
each other is obtained when the spded of the churn 
stops just short of setting up centrifugal force in 



Size and Character of Fat Globules 



215 



the churn. This will be found to correspond to a 
motion of the particles of cream of about 700 feet per 
minute. 

The quality of the globules of fat. — The quality of 
the globules of fat, both as to their size and char- 




Fig. 34. Square box power cliiirn. 

acter, bears an important part in the phenomena 
of churning. So far as the hardness or softness of 
the fats is concerned, this has already been treated 
of under the effect of temperature; but temperature 
is not the only influence which causes variation in 



216 



Milk and Its Products 




Fig. 35. "Simplex" combined 
churn and butter worker. 



the hardness or softness of the fat. The relative 
proportions of hard and soft fats vary consider- 
ably. When the soft fats 
predominate, the churning is 
easier than when they are in 
less proportion, while an un- 
due proportion of hard fats 
often renders churning ex- 
tremely difficult. The size of 
the fat globules also bears an 
important part in the ease 
and time required for churn- 
ing. In passing through a 
mass of liquid two large ■ globules are more likely 
to hit each other than are two small ones, the rela- 
tive probability of their meeting and hitting being 
in proportion to the squares of theii* diameters. 

The end of churning. — When the particles of fat 
have united to such an extent that they begin to be 
visible in the cream, the butter is said to "break," 
and from this time on the process of churning is rap- 
idly finished. Two things are to be observed in bring- 
ing the operation of churning to a close. In the 
first place, the churning should be continued until 
the separation of fat is as complete as possible. 
In the second place, the larger the masses of but- 
ter in the churning the more difficult is the re- 
moval of the buttermilk. If the cream is thor- 
oughly and uniformly ripened, the separation will be 
more uniform and the churning more complete 
than when creams of different degrees of ripeness 



Conditions of Difficult Churning 217 

are churned together ; but under various conditions, 
and from time to time, the completeness of separation 
varies with the size of the granules of butter; that 
is to say, if the granules have reached a certain size, 
it does not always follow that the fat has been re- 
moved from the buttermilk to the same degree, so 
that the size of the granules of butter is not a certain 
indication of the completeness of churning. When the 
churning process is complete, the buttermilk takes on 
a thin, bluish, watery appearance, quite distinct from 
the thicker creamy appearance of the unchurned cream, 
and the churning should be continued until this con- 
dition of the buttermilk is reached, even though the 
granules are increased in size beyond the point favor- 
able to their best separation from the buttermilk. 
The higher the temperature at which the cream is 
churned, the greater the percentage of fat left in 
the buttermilk and the more casein will be incorpo- 
rated with the butter. 

Difficult churning. — Conditions often arise under 
which it is very difficult or impossible to cause the 
butter to unite in granules and separate from the but- 
termilk. One of the chief difficulties accompanies 
a small and hard condition of the butter granules 
with a high viscosity in the cream. These con- 
ditions usually occur in the late fall and early win- 
ter months, when the cows are far advanced in lac- 
tation, and when they are often fed on dry food 
of a character to make hard butter fat. An im- 
^ proper ripening of the cream often accompanies 
these conditions, so that complaints of difficulty in 



218 Milk and Its Products 

churDing are usually numerous at this period of 
the year. These complaints readily yield to the 
proper treatment, which is indicated under the con- 
ditions affecting churning, and so far as is known 
there never occurs a condition under which it is 
absolutely impossible to churn the butter from any 
given sample of cream. The course to be followed in 
cases of this nature is, first, to add to the food of 
the cows something of a succulent nature, that will 
cause the secretion of milk to be greater in amount 
and not so viscous. Second, to further lessen the 
viscosity by bringing about a vigorous lactic acid 
fermentation in the milk, and in extreme instances, 
perhaps, diluting the cream with warm water or 
weak brine. Care must be taken that this dilution 
does not go too far, or difficulty in churning from 
the thinness of the cream will result. The produc- 
tion of lactic acid in good amounts and within a 
reasonable time seems to be an important means of 
overcoming these cases of difficult churning. It is 
not unlikely that some of the lower fermentations, 
which take place at temperatures below which the 
lactic acid germs are active, may in themselves have 
a retarding effect upon the churning. These cases 
of difficult churning are frequently accompanied by 
the production of an acrid or bitter putrefactive 
fermentation product in the cream. 

If the attempt is made to churn at an extremely 
low temperature, the agitation of the cream serves 
to incorporate with it bubbles of au% and the 
cream froths or swells. When this takes place, 



Helping Butter to ''Break'' 219 

little can be done except to allow the cream to 
stand for several hours and then warm it up 
gradually four or five degrees before again starting 
the churn. There is very much less danger of swel- 
ling in the revolving churns than in dash churns. 

Frequently also, in cases when the attempt is 
made to churn at the extreme lowest point possible, 
the formation of butter stops just short of the 
breaking point, and further agitation does not result 
in an increase of butter. This may be overcome by 
slightly raising the temperature, or by the addition 
of a little water at a temperature of 85° or 90° F.; 
or, what is better, it can usually be brought about 
by the addition of a little dry salt to the churn. 
The solution of salt in the water of the cream 
seems to affect the viscosity in such a way that 
the formation of butter granules is greatly facilitated. 

When ripened cream is churned, there is usually 
an evolution of gas immediately after the agitation 
commences. This is gas which has been formed hy 
some of the fermentations going on in the cream, and 
the gas is liberated within the first five or ten min- 
utes. The temperature also rises two or three degrees 
during the operation, from the effect of the friction 
of the particles upon one another. 



CHAPTER XII 

FINISHING AND MARKETING BUTTER 

When the churning process is complete, it still 
remains to separate the buttermilk from the granules 
of butter, and to bring the whole into a solid, uni- 
form mass, suitable for consumption and properly 
flavored with salt. These operations may be per- 
formed in a variety of ways. Formerly it was the 
custom to continue the churning until the butter 
was in a measurably solid mass, when it was ' re- 
moved from the churn and the buttermilk expelled 
by pressure, at the same time that the salt was 
incorporated with the butter. Now the buttermilk 
is uniformly removed from the butter by washing 
with water in the churn, and in many instances 
the salt is incorporated with it during the whole 
or part of this operation ; but the more common 
practice is to wash the butter in the churn and to 
work out the surplus moisture and incorporate the 
salt upon a separate instrument, called a butter 
worker. 

Washing the butter. — The churning should be 
stopped as soon as the buttermilk is clear and wa- 
tery. If the churning has been done at the right 
temperature and the cream properly ripened, this con- 

(220) 



Washing Butter 221 

dition will occur when the butter granules are not 
larger than kernels of wheat. As soon as the churn 
is stopped, the addition of a little cold water to the 
contents of the churn will facilitate the rising of 
the smaller globules of butter through the butter- 
milk. The buttermilk should then be drawn oif 
from the bottom of the churn, and the butter al- 
lowed to drain thoroughly. After the butter is thor- 
oughly drained, water at a temperature of 45° to 
55° F. should be added in amounts equal to two- 
thirds- the amount of buttermilk withdrawn. The 
contents of the churn should then be gently agitated, 
so that the water may come in contact with each par- 
ticle of butter, but not to such an extent that the 
particles ^ill compact themselves into larger masses. 
In about ten or fifteen minutes, this water should be 
withdrawn and the butter allowed to drain as before, 
after which the butter should be washed the second 
time in the same manner. This second water should 
run away clear, or with a very slight milkiness. 
If it is at all milky, the butter should be washed 
again, and the washing continued until the water does 
run away clear. It is desirable that as little wash- 
ing be done as possible, and if care is taken in 
stopping the churning at the right moment, and in 
draining and washing the butter, two waters will be 
sufficient. The addition of a small amount of salt 
to the first washing water will facilitate the removal 
of the buttermilk, but will not add any perceptible 
saltiness to the butter. The way in which the wash- 
ing is done perceptibly affects the quality of the 



222 Milk and Its Products 

finished butter, particularly so far as regards its tex- 
ture and percentage of water. The smaller the 
granules of butter when the churn is stopped, and 
the colder the water used, the more water will re- 
main in the butter without appearing in the form 
of drops. If the churning has progressed until the 
butter has formed masses the size of a hickory nut 
or larger, particularly if the butter is soft, it will 
be impossible to completely wash the buttermilk from 
the butter, and the buttermilk must necessarily be 
removed in working. Such butter will always re- 
tain in its flavor traces of the buttermilk so incor- 
porated with it. 

The texture of the butter is also affected by the 
temperature of the wash water. If the butter comes 
soft, the attempt is usually made to cool it down 
rapidly by the addition of large amounts of very cold 
water. The butter can be hardened up in this way, 
but it will show the effect of sudden changes of 
temperature afterward much more strongly than if it 
were cooled down more slowly. Butter fat does 
not conduct heat rapidly, and to become thoroughly 
warm or thoroughly cool requires some little time. 
If, then, butter has been churned too warm, and 
comes in a soft condition, the washing process should 
be much prolonged. Use the ordinary amount of 
water and at the ordinary temperature, but allow the 
butter to remain in it until it has had sufficient time 
to thoroughly adjust itself to the changed condition. 
It can then be taken out and worked without dan- 
ger of quickly becoming soft again. There is also 



Working Butter 



223 



danger of removing some of the more delicate flavor- 
ing oils of the bntter by the use of too large an 
amount of very cold water. These flavoring oils are 




Fig. 36. " Eureka " hand butter- worker, 

slightly soluble, and more soluble at a low tempera- 
ture, so that the drenching with large amounts of 
very cold water has a tendency toward the produc- 
tion of a flavorless or tallowy butter. 

Worhing. — Working butter is an integral part of 
the process of manufacture, only in so far as it re- 
lates to the incorporation of the salt and bringing 
the butter into the compact form necessary for con- 
sumption, so that all working beyond that which 
is necessary to bring about these two things is super- 



224 Milh and Its Products 

fluous, and, because of the danger of injuring the 
grain of the butter, is objectionable. The grain 
of the butter is least affected by working when this 
is done by pressure and at a temperature of from 
45° to 55° F, The amount of water that remains 



Fig. 37. "Mason" table butter-worker. 

in the butter depends, as before stated, upon the 
temperature and fineness of the granules. The finer 
and colder the butter, the more water will it retain. 
Salting. — Salt is added to butter solely for the 
sake of the flavor which it imparts. While salt has 
undoubted antiseptic properties, these play very little 
part in the preservation of butter, and need not be 
taken into consideration. The amount of salt, then, 
that should be added to butter depends entirely 



Salting Butter 



225 



upon the taste of the consumer for whom it is in- 
tended; and maj^ vary from a mere trifle to as 
much as 2% ounces for each pound of butter. 
The great majority of consumers, however, j)refer 
an amount ranging between % of an ounce and 1 
ounce to the pound. The addition of a uniform 




Fig. 38. " Centrifugal " or vertical butter-worker. 

amount of salt from day to day is a matter of 
considerable importance in securing a uniform qual- 
ity of butter, and the amount of salt should, there- 
fore, be based upon the least variable factor possi- 
ble. It will be found that from day to day the 
size of the granules of butter when washed, and the 
o 



226 Milh and Its Products 

amount of water adhering to them, will vary consid- 
erably, so that the weight of washed and drained but- 
ter will not bear any definite relation to the amount 
of finished butter, and if the attempt is made to gauge 
the salt by the weight of drained butter, it will be 
found that the degree of saltness will vary considera- 
bl3% because when more water is contained in the 
butter much more of the salt will pass out with 
the brine. When a separator is used in creaming, 
the weight of cream will be found to bear a closer 
proportion to the weight of finished butter than 
either the original weight of the whole milk or th-e 
weight of the washed and drained butter, and the 
more uniform salting will . be obtained if the salt 
is added in the ratio of a certain percentage of 
the weight of the cream. The salt should be added 
so that it can be readily and uniformly incorporated 
with the whole amount of butter. This is con- 
veniently done while the water is being expressed 
from the butter in ' the worker, and the working 
should continue until the salt has completely dis- 
solved, because the salt has a deepening effect upon 
the color of the butter, and if some undissolved 
portions remain, these, afterwards dissolving in the 
water contained in: the butter, will make a strong 
brine at that particular point, and consequently a 
deeper color, and mottled or streaked butter is the 
result. 

The salt should be dry, of uniform grain, and 
should readily and completely dissolve to a clear 
solution. Those brands of salt which are made from 



Packing Butter 227 

the natural crystal give the best results so far as re- 
maining dry and freedom from caking are concerned. 

Brine salting .^With. many who prefer a butter 
slightly salted, it is sometimes convenient to add 
the salt through the medium of brine, rather than 
to mix it with the butter in a dry condition. The 
advantages of brine salting are that a light amount 
of salt may be uniformly incorporated with the 
butter. It is not possible to incorporate with the 
butter a large amount of salt in this way. Where 
well -drained butter is salted at the rate of one 
ounce to the pound, there will remain in the but- 
ter about 3 per cent of salt. Where butter is 
washed twice with a saturated brine, there will re- 
main in the butter when worked about 2 per cent 
of salt. In salting butter in this manner, it is nec- 
essary that the brine should be prepared before- 
hand. This is best done by dissolving the salt in 
warm water, as much as the water will hold, and 
then cooling it to the proper temperature to add to 
the butter. The brine in this instance may take the 
place of the second wash water. After the brine 
has remained upon the butter five or ten minutes, 
it should be withdi-awn and additional salt added to 
it, or a second portion of saturated brine added and 
left upon the butter for a similar length of time, 
after which the brine may be withdrawn and the 
butter worked in the ordinary manner. 

Packing and marketing. — After the butter has 
been worked until the salt is completely dissolved 
and a sufBcient amount of water removed, it is 



228 Milk and Its Products 

ready for packing. Butter that is to be packed 
and held for any considerable length of time should 
be worked drier than when it is intended for im- 
mediate consumption. Fresh butter is most highly 
esteemed in most markets when it contains about all 
the water that it will hold, but if such butter is 
held for any length of time the evaporation of water 
from the surface will lead to a deposition of salt, 
which detracts much from its appearance and sala- 
bleness. An ideal package for butter is one that is 
light, strong and tight. None of the packages 
in ordinary use are perfect in all of these respects. 
Wooden packages, though light and strong, always 
leak more or less and let in air. Tin packages 
are more or less objectionable because of the action 
of the salt upon the tin, and iron, and glass, and 
crockery packages, although tight and clean, are 
heavy and subject to breakage. Packages made ot 
paper or wood pulp have been used to some extent, as 
have also packages of these materials covered with 
paraf&ne, but they do not make a very attractive 
package. All things considered, tight, smooth, well- 
made tubs of ash, spruce or oak make the most 
available package. All wooden packages possess the 
characteristic flavor of the wood, which may be im-; 
parted to the butter to a greater or less extent If 
it is allowed to remain in them very long. Id 
order to obviate this, the odor of the wood should be 
removed as much as possible before the butter is 
packed. The package should be thoroughly steamed, 
and then filled with hot water in which some salt 



Composition of Butter 229 

has been dissolved, and allowed to stand at least 
twenty -four hours, after which it should be scalded 
a second time and then cooled with cold water. 
Butter may also be packed in prints or moulds, 
especially for immediate consumption. The demand 
for butter in this form is increasing, and for nearby 
markets it is one of the most desirable forms of 
packing. In cool weather and with proper precau- 
tions, prints may also be shipped considerable dis- 
tances with success. Prints are usually made in 
pound and half-pound sizes, intended to go directly 
upon the table in the shape in which they leave 
the manufacturer. Various shapes and sizes of prints 
have been made, but since the great increase in the 
demand for butter in this shape, a standard size for 
pound prints has been settled upon that makes a 
rectangular print, 4% x 2% x 2% inches. These 
prints are wrapped in parchment paper and packed 
in specially made carrying boxes. 

Composition and quality of hutter. — The average 
composition of butter is about as follows: 

Fat 85 per cent. | 

Casein 1 per cent. 

Salt 3 per cent. 

Water 11 per cent. ;,' 

f 

The percentage of fat should not fall below 80 per 
cent nor the water rise above 15 per cent. The per- 
centage of casein should not exceed 4 per cent. The 
percentage of fat in butter of good quality often rises 
to 86 or 88 per cent. The quality of butter is 
judged upon its flavor, texture, color, amount of salt, 



230 Milk and Its Products 

and its general style and appearance. Butter of good 
flavor should have the characteristic flavors well pro- 
nounced. It should be free from any rancidity, and 
clean and pure so far as any extraneous flavor is con- 
cerned. The determination of the flavor of any sam- 
ple of butter is entirely one of individual judgment. 
To some a high flavor is one in which the flavoring 
oils are developed almost to the verge of ranciditj^; 
in others, high flavor means a certain amount of the 
flavor of sour milk or buttermilk ; with still others, 
that butter is esteemed of the best flavor that is 
cleanest and purest. The true bouquet of high -class 
butter is a mild, distinct, volatile flavor or combina- 
tion of flavors extremely difficult to describe, and only 
met with in perfection under the best conditions. 

The texture of butter depends upon the state of 
the granular condition of the fats. When the butter 
is first formed in the churn it makes its appearance 
in the shape of minute irregular granules. In the sub- 
sequent process of manufacture these granules never 
completely lose their individuality, and constitute the 
so-called grain of the butter. The more distinctly 
the individuality of the granules is marked in the 
mass of butter, the better the texture. The texture 
of the butter is shown by an appearance like broken 
cast iron when a mass of butter is broken in two 
transversely, and when a metal is passed through the 
butter, as a knife or trier, if the butter be of the 
best texture, no particles of fat adhere to it. The 
texture of the butter is deteriorated if the particles 
of butter are churned in too large masses, and if 



Judging Butter 231 

in the process of working the individual particles 
are made to move upon one another at too high a 
temperature. The mere warming of the butter to a 
point approaching the melting point destroys the 
grain upon subsequent cooling, even though the mass 
of butter may have been undisturbed. 

The color of the butter should be a clear, bright, 
golden yellow, such as is naturally yielded by the 
cow when feeding upon fresh pasture grasses. The 
natural color of the butter is affected very largely by 
the race of the cow, by the character of the food, 
and by the period of lactation. Scarcely any breed 
of cows will yield a butter of ideal color upon dry 
food late in their period of lactation. On the other 
hand, one or two races upon fresh pasture will 
yield a butter of too high a color to suit the most 
critical trade. The great mass of butter made is 
artificially colored. For this purpose a large va- 
riety of substances has been used, but the color- 
ing matter most commonly employed is a prep- 
aration of annatto (a coloring matter in the seed 
pulp of Bixa orellana) in some neutral oil. This 
coloring matter is prepared of such strength that only 
minute quantities are necessary to be added to the 
cream to produce butter of the proper shade. Ani- 
line colors are also quite largely used in the prep- 
aration of butter colors. They are cheaper and do 
not so easily fade as annatto, and some of them 
are harmless ; but because of the liability of their 
containing injurious or poisonous substances their 
use is not to be recommended. Butter artificially 



232 MilJc and Its Products 

colored should be uniform, of a bright golden 
yellow color, free from any reddish tinge. The 
demand of different markets varies considerably in 
regard to the shade of color desired. 

In regard to salt, the quality of the butter is 
not necessarily affected by the amount of salt, that 
being established by the demand of the trade for 
which it is intended, but the salt, in whatever de- 
gree added, should be completely dissolved, and 
should be uniform throughout the whole mass of 
butter. The finish of the butter, in whatever form 
packed, should be such that it will present a neat, 
clean, attractive appearance. The different qualities 
of butter are ranked in importance in accordance 
wdth the following scales: 

Flavor . . . . , 40 to 45. 

Texture 25 to 30. 

Color 10 to 15. 

Salt 10 

mxdsh . 5 



CHAPTER XIII 
MILK FOB CHEESE MAEINa 

Cheese is a product manufactured from milk, into 
which a large part of the solids are gathered together 
in such form that their nourishing qualities are re- 
tained, at the same time that they are brought into 
a condition capable of preservation and convenient 
for transportation. The solids which are concerned 
in the manufacture of cheese are the casein, the fats, 
and a considerable portion of the ash. The albumin, 
nearly all of the sugar, about one -third of the ash, 
and a small part of the fat, escape during the course 
of manufacture. The elimination of a large part of 
the water is the chief step in the process of cheese 
making. In general terms, cheese consists of about 
equal proportions of water, fat and casein, with a 
certain amount of salt and minute quantities of milk 
sugar and ash. In milk, the casein exists in a state 
of minute suspension or semi- solution. The essential 
step in securing the separation of the water is in 
rendering the casein insoluble. Casein, like most 
albuminous organic substances, exists in two forms, 
known respectively as the soluble and the insoluble 
or coagulated form, and the change from solution to 
insolubility is termed coagulation. In the case of 

(233) 



\ 



234 Milk and Its Products 

casein, coagulation may be brought about by several 
reagents, but the one universally employed in cheese 
making is a soluble ferment found in the stomachs 
of young mammalia and in certain other animals, 
known as rennet. By the addition of rennet to 
milk, the casein takes on the form of a homogene- 
ous gelatinous solid, and in changing its form en- 
closes in its mass the globules of fat. In bringing 
about the change in the casein in this way, the ren- 
net acts by contact ; that is, its own constitution is 
in no way disturbed, and a minute amount of rennet 
is capable of causing the coagulation of a large 
amount of milk. 

Quality of milk for cheese making. — While it is 
scarcely necessary to demonstrate that milk is val- 
uable for butter making in proportion to the amount 
of fat it contains, the proposition that its percent- 
age of fat is also a measure of the value of nearly 
all milk for cheese making has not been so readily 
accepted. Indeed, until within a very short time, the 
prevailing opinion among dairymen and cheese -makers 
has been that a milk poor in fat was likely to be 
rich in casein, and hence more valuable for cheese 
making purposes. But both fat and casein are con- 
stituents of cheese, and both are of nearly equal im- 
portance ; hence, the richer a milk is in fat, the 
more cheese it will make, and recent research has 
shown that for milks containing a normal amount of 
fat the yield of cheese will be nearly proportional to 
the percentage of fat in the milk. 



Relation of Fat to Casein 



235 



Van Slyke,* in a series of investigations extend- 
ing over several years, and including the milk of not 
less than fifteen hundred different cows, found that as 
the percentage of fat increased the percentage of 
casein increased in a nearly constant ratio ; or, to 
quote his own words : "While we have noticed con- 
siderable variation when we considered individual 
herds, we have found that, as a rule, there were two- 
thirds of one pound of casein for each pound of 
fat in the milk, whether the milk contained 3 or 4 
per cent of fat ; though this normal relation was con- 
siderably affected in the season of 1893 by the effects 
of drought upon the pastures. * * ^i^ ^K WThen 
the amount of fat in the milk increased beyond 4% 
per cent, there was a gradual but slight diminution 
of casein for each pound of fat." 

The accompanying tables give the data upon which 
Dr. Van Slyke's opinions were based : 

Table shoiving relation of fat to casein in normal milk 



Group. 


Percent of 
fat in milk. 


Number of 
samples. 


Average per 

cent of fat in 

each group. 


Average per 
cent of casein 
in each group 


Average 

pounds of 

casein for 

each pound of 

fat. 


I. 

II. 
III. 
IV. 

V. 


3 to 3.5 
3.5 to 4 

4 to 4.5 
4.5 to 5 

5 to 5.25 


22 
112 

78 
16 

7 • 


3.35 
3.72 
4.15 
4.74 
5.13 


2.20 
2.46 
2.70 
3.05 
3.12 


0.66 
0.66 
0.65 
0.64 
0.61 



*New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin, No. 68, New Series. 



286 Milk and Its Products 

Table showing relation of fat in milk to yield of cheese 





Per cent of fat in 




milk. 


I. 


3 to 3.5 


II. 


3.5 to 4 


III. 


4 to 4.5 


IV. 


4.5 to 5 


V. 


5 to 5.25 



Pounds of green 


Pounds of green 


cheese made from 100 


cheese made for one 


lbs. of milk. 


pound of fat in milk. 


9.14 


2.73 


10.04 


2.70 


11.34 


2.73 


12.85 


2.71 


13.62 


2.66 



Babcock* tabulated the results of a large num- 
ber of observations in factories in Wisconsin in the 
accompanying tables, and while agreeing in the main 
with Van Slyke, was forced to conclude that, " at the 
same season of the year, rich milks do not yield as 
much cheese in proportion to the fat they contain as 
do poor milks, but that a rich milk toward the end of 
the season may do as well as a much poorer milk 
earlier in the season." 

TaUe shoiving yield of cheese in Wisconsin factories according to 
per cent of fat in millc 



No. of 
groups. 


No. of 
reports. 


Range of fat 
per cent. 


Average per 
cent of fat. 


Average 

yield of 

cheese per 

100 lbs. milk. 


Lbs. of cured 

cheese for 

1 lb. fat. 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 


24 
90 
134 
43 
46 
20 


under 3.25 
3.25—3.50 
3.50—3.75 
3.75-4.00 
4.00—4.25 
over 4.25 


3.126 
3.382 
3.600 
3.839 
4.090 
4.447 


9.194 
9.285 
9.407 
9.806 
10.300 
10.707 


2.941 
2.730 
2.613 
2.562 
2.512 
2.407 


All groups. . 


347 




3.64 


9.566 


2.628 



♦Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, 11th Annual Report, p. 137. 



Relation of Fat to Casein 237 

Table showing yield of cheese in Wisconsin factories by months 



April 

May 

June 

July 

August . . . 
September . . . 
October .... 
November . . 

Whole season 



No. of 
reports. 



347 



Average per 
cent of fat. 



3.480 
3.493 
3.497 
3.554 
3.634 
3.836 
4.076 
4.254 



3.64 



Average 

yield of 

cheese per 

100 lbs. milk. 



9.154 
9.447 
9.367 
9.231 
9.335 
9.955 
10.562 
10.947 



).566 



Lbs. of cured 
cheese for 
1 lb. of fat. 



2.630 
2.704 
2.679 
2.593 
2.568 
2.594 
2.591 
2.573 



2.628 



Table showing yield of cheese for one pound of fat for each month 



Percent of fat. 



Under 3.25 

3.25—3.50 

3.50-3.75 

3.75—4.00 

4.00—4.25 

Over 4.25 



April and 
May. I 



June 



No. 

12-2.96 

33—2.73 

34—2.62 

7—2.53 

3—2.56 

1—2.15 



No. 

6—2.99 
23—2.74 
32—2.63 
3—2.47 
2—2.30 



July. 



August. 



No. 

3—2.89 

20—2.70 

29—2.58 

7—2.46 

4—2.33 



No. 
3—2.88 
11—2.73 
24—2.54 
7—2.53 
3—2.35 
1—1.95 



Sept. 



No. 



3—2.85 

10—2.67 

13—2.61 

9—2.47 

1—2.13 



October 

and 

Novemb'r 



No. 



5—2.81 
6—2.62 
15—2.64 
17—2.46 



On the other hand, Dean* has found that uni- 



* Ontario Agricultural College, 21st Annual Report, p. 44. 



238 



Milk and Its Products 



formly a rich milk yields less cheese in proportion 
to the fat contained in it than a poor milk. His 
experiments covered a whole season's work in a 
single factory, the average results of which are shown 
in the following table: 

Yield of cheese from rich and poor milk 



April . . - 
May .... 
June . . . . 
July . . . 
August . . . 
September . 
October . . 
Average 



Num- 
ber of 
experi- 
ments. 



Per cent of fat in | Pounds of green cheese 
miljj for one pound of fat 

' in milk. 



Richer 
milk. 



4.21 
4.09 
3.94 
3.78 
3.82 
4.01 
3.99 



Poorer 
milk. 



Richer l Poorer 
milk. ! milk. 



3,39 
3.30 
3.16 

3.00 

2.91 

3.06 

3.26 
3.15 



2.68 
2.68 
2.73 
2.74 
2.68 
2.82 



2.71 



2.86 
2 84 
2.94 
3.06 
3.14 
3.06 
3.05 



.99 



The practical bearing of the relation of the fat 
to the casein arises in the question as to whether, 
where milk is bought for cheese making, it should 
be paid for by weight or according to its percent- 
age of fat. It does not require proof, that to pay 
an equal price per pound or hundred weight for 
milk of all qualities is a gross injustice to those 



Belation of Fat to Casein 239 

wlio produce the richer milks. If there were a 
quick, accurate method of determining casein, the 
logical practice would be to pay for the milk upon 
the basis of its known content of both fat and 
casein; but failing in that, it is well to examine 
in how far we may fall back upon the percentage 
of fat, the determination of which is both quick 
and accurate, as a measure for determining the 
value of milk for cheese making. While there is 
some disagreement, it seems to be pretty well settled 
that a milk rich in fat is also richer in casein, 
and with milk of ordinary quality, including prob- 
ably nine -tenths of all the milk produced, nearly in 
proportion to the percentage of fat. So that, even 
if the richer milk does yield a little less cheese 
for each pound of fat, the percentage of fat is a 
much more nearly just measure of its cheese -pro- 
ducing power than is the weight of the milk, the 
measure now commonly employed. Further, when 
the milk is so rich in fat that the casein falls 
considerably below its normal ratio to the fat, the - 
resulting cheese will be so much richer in fat 
that it will be of considerably better quality, and 
such milk, when pooled with milk poor in fat, will 
so bring up the quality of the whole product, that it 
should be paid for at a correspondingly higher rate. 
The conclusion, therefore, is that the percentage of 
fat is by far the most accurate measure at present 
available for the determination of the cheese -produ- 
cing value of milk, and that milk is practically valu- 
able for cheese making in proportion to the amount 



240 



Milk and Its Products 



of fat that it contains, and should be paid for ac- 
cordingly. 

Loss of fat in cheese making. — It has been a gen- 
erally accepted idea by cheese -makers, that the neces- 
sary loss of fat in the whey is much greater 
when the milk contains a high percentage of fat. 
Indeed, the statement has been frequently made 
that all the fat in the milk above 4 per cent is 
lost in the whey. This idea has had much to do 
with the disinclination to value milk for cheese 
making according to its percentage of fat, and, in 
fact, has been a chief argument in favor of the 
manufacture of skimmed or partly skimmed cheese. 

The following table by Van Slyke* shows that 
this idea is erroneous, and that the loss of fat in 
the whey need be proportionately no greater when 
the milk is rich than when it is poor in fat. 
Table showing amount of fat lost and recovered in tnaking cheese 



Number of 
experi- 
ment. 


Pounds 

of fat 

in 100 

lbs. 

of milk. 


Pounds of 
fat lost in 

100 lbs. 

of milk. 


Pounds of fat 

recovered in 

100 lbs. of 

milk. 


Pounds of fat Pounds of fat 

lost in wbey recovered in 

from 100 lbs. green cheese 

of fat in 1 from 100 lbs. 

milk. of fat in milk. 


1 

2 

3 

4 . . • . . 

5 • .... 

6 

7 

8 

9 


2.35 
3.01 
3.88 
3.96 
4.70 
4.73 
4.80 
6.49 
3.70 


0.154 
0.193 
0.277 
0.283 
0.359 
0.331 
0.373 
0.715 
0.269 


2.196 
2.817 
3.603 
3.677 
4.341 
4.399 
4.427 
5.775 
3.431 


6.55 
6.42 
7.15 
7.14 
7.64 
6.99 
7.77 
11.01 
7.26 


93.45 
93.58 
92.85 
92.86 
92.36 
93.01 
92.23 
88.99 
92.74 



Other investigators have abundantly 
these results. 



confirmed 



'New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 37, p. 681. 



Cooling and Aeration 241 

Cooling. — All that was said in Chapter VII on 
"market milk," in regard to cleanliness in drawing 
the milk, applies equally well to milk that is in- 
tended for cheese making, but where milk is made 
into cheese it is not necessary, noi-, indeed, is 
it desirable, that the lactic acid fermentations be 
checked further than is necessary to allow the milk 
to come into the cheese maker's hands in the best 
condition. In cheese making, the fermentations of 
the milk play a most important part, and while it 
is not at present known just what fermentations are 
necessary or most desirable, sufficient is known to as- 
sure us that a certain amount of lactic acid is not 
onl}^ desirable but necessary for the cheese making 
process, and enough further is known that those fer- 
mentations which attack the protein substances, and 
result in the formation of strong flavors, taints and 
gases, are all undesirable in cheese making. For 
the purpose of cheese making, it is desu^able that the 
fat should separate from the other constituents of 
the milk as little as possible, and to that end the 
previous treatment of the milk should be such that 
the separation of cream will be held back as mueb 
as possible. One of the best means of doing this 
is to cool the milk to the temperature of the air 
while it is kept constantly in motion. This, be- 
side helping to keep the cream mixed with the milk, 
will also favor the escape of any volatile animal 
products that may be present in the milk, known 
under the collective name of animal odor, and 
which would otherwise impart objectionable flavors 
to the cheese. 



242 



MilJc and Its Products 



Aeration. — Passing the milk through an elevated 
strainer in such a manner that it may fall in 
finely divided drops or streams through the air be- 
fore it reaches the can, is one of the best means 
of bringing about this end. This is known as 
aeration. It cannot be depended 
upon to destroy or even check the 
germs of fermentations which may be 
present in the milk, beyond that 
due to the reduction of temperature. 
It is not desirable that milk in- 
tended for cheese making should 
be cooled much below the tempera- 
ture of the air, and one of the best 
preparations of milk intended for 
cheese making is to allow it to 
^^ remain where it will be freely ex- 
posed to a pure and moderately cool 
Hod kin" atmosphere. Under ordinary condi- 
tions, the milks of the evening and 
the succeeding morning are manufactured together, 
and the treatment indicated is naturally that of the 
night's milk. It is highly desirable, however, that 
the milk of the morning should be cooled to the 
temperature of the atmosphere before it is taken to 
the factory, and under ordinary conditions the milk 
of the night and morning should be taken to the 
factory in separate cans. 

Ripening. — The lactic acid fermentation is prob- 
ably one of the most important factors in all the 
steps of cheese making, and to know to what ex- 




Fig 

elevated strainer 



Rennet Tests 



243 



tent it has progressed before the process begins, is 
exceedingly important to the cheese maker. To this 
end, several convenient tests may be applied. The 
veteran, who has attained skill through long manip- 
ulation, can tell with a fair degree of accuracy 
thi'ough the sense of smell and taste the amount 
of lactic acid present in his milk, but this is not 
a safe enough guide for those who are inexpe- 
rienced, or those who expect to make a uniform 
product in a uniform 
way from day to day. 
Rennet tests. — The 
percentage of lactic 
acid present in the 
milk can readily be 
determined directly by 
titration with a stand- 
ard alkali, but the 
amount of lactic acid 
present is also quite 
readily dete r m i n e d 
by the length of 
time required for ren- 
net coagulation, since 
ren net acts more 
quickly upon milk 
the riper it is, and 
upon this fact two 
or three simple tests .^ ^ ^ 

have been devised. Fig. 40. Monrad rennet test, a, 5 c. e. pipette; 
rrii • 1 i r. ii 6, 50 c. c. graduated flask; c, cup in which 

The simplest OI these test is made. 




244 



Milk and Its Products 



is to add a spoonful of rennet of known strength 
to a teacupful of milk and, after stirring the two 
together thoroughly, to note carefully the time re- 
quired for coagulation. Another and more exact 
method, known as the Monrad test, is made as fol- 
lows: To a measured quantity of milk at a given 
temperature a measured quantity of rennet of known 
strength is added; ordinarily the commercial rennet is 
diluted nine times for this purpose. The rennet is 
thoroughly stirred with the milk, and the time re- 
quired for coagulation is carefully noted. This is 
simply a development of the cup test, and is better 
because of its greater delicacy and accuracy; the 
milk and rennet being more carefully measured, and, 
diluted rennet being used, a wider range of delicacy 

is reached. Still 
another form of ren- 
net test, known as 
the Marschall test, 
has been devised. 
In this test the milk 
is measured into a 
vessel, one of whose 
sides is graduated 
and in the bottom 
of which there is a 
minute orifice. The 
rennet is added to 
the milk, and the 
vessel so placed that the milk can escape from the 
hole in the bottom. So long as the milk remains 




Fig. 41. Marschall rennet test. 



Ripening the Milk 245 

fluid the stream is continuous, but as soon as the ren- 
net takes effect and a clot is formed, the stream stops, 
and no more escapes. The number of spaces of milk 
which escape is taken as the measure of the ripeness 
of the milk. When the percentage of lactic acid is 
great the stream stops sooner than where little acid 
has been formed, so that in the ripe milk a less 
number of spaces shows upon the side of the vessel 
than in the unripe milk. 

Degree of ripeness necessary. — By ripeness of milk 
for cheese making is meant, as in the case of but- 
ter making, the degree of lactic acid development that 
has taken place. For cheese making, the develop- 
ment of lactic acid should not have proceeded so 
far that the milk is distinctly sour to the taste, and 
it should have proceeded far enough so that the 
whole process of cheddar cheese making, from the 
time of adding the rennet to putting the cheese in 
press, will take not more than six hours. This will 
be indicated by a rennet test of 2% spaces on the 
Marschall apparatus, or a rennet test of one minute 
on the Monrad test, when 5 c. c. of diluted com- 
mercial rennet extract (1 part rennet to 9 of water) 
are added to 200 c. c. of milk. 

Starters.— In very many cases the milk, when 
brought to the factory, will not be sufficiently ripe 
to give the tests indicated above. In that case it 
should be allowed to ripen before the cheese making 
process begins. This may be brought about by 
heating the milk up to 85° F., when the germs 
already present become more active ; but the time 



246 Milk and Its Products 

required for the ripening will be shortened, and more 
uniform results be obtained if, in addition to the 
warming, an artificial starter is used. This may be 
any material containing the germs of lactic fermen- 
tation in active condition. The whey saved from 
the previous day, or milk naturally or artificially 
soured, may be used. An extremely convenient 
form of starter is made by preparing an artificial 
ferment in the following way: Ten pounds of 
whole milk are sterilized at 180° F., then cooled to 
90°, and sufficient commercial dry lactic ferment 
added to secure coagulation in twenty -four hours. 
When coagulated, this is added to the extent of 10 
per cent to enough whole milk to make sufficient 
starter for one day's use. (See Appendix A.) The 
amount of starter to be added for the purpose of 
ripening the milk should be from 2 to 5 per cent, 
varying with the temperature of the air and the 
amount of ripeness that it is necessary to develop after 
the milk reaches the factory. Enough of the ferment 
should be reserved each day to prepare ferment for 
the following day from whole milk; and with care that 
the vessels in which the ferment is made are kept 
clean and sweet, a single ferment may be propagated 
for from ten days to two weeks. As a matter of fact, 
there is no reason why a ferment may not be propa- 
gated for an indefinite time. All that is necessary is to 
keep everything bacteriologically clean and to prevent 
infection by never allowing any dust or solid particles 
to fall into the ferment and never to touch it with the 
hands. Such a ferment will give more uniform results, 



Preparation of Rennet 247 

and is less liable to introduce taints and bad flavors, 
than a ferment made from sour whey, and with a little 
care and attention, the fermentation will go on regu- 
larly from day to day. 

Rennet — The ordinary source of rennet is the 
fourth or digestive stomach of a calf that has not 
yet ceased to live upon milk, though rennet is also 
found in the stomachs of puppies and pigs, and the 
latter have occasionally been used as a source of 
rennet. The active principle of the rennet is found 
in the folds of the lining membrane of the stomach 
of the animal, and is greatest in amount when a full 
meal is just digested. 

Rennet causes coagulation of the casein by con- 
tact, and is not itself affected by the change. Its 
action, however, is greatly modified by various con- 
ditions of the milk, the most important of which 
are the temperature and the condition of certain of 
the ash constituents. Rennet is most active at tem- 
peratures near the body heat, 98° F. At temper- 
atures below 80° F., the action of rennet is corre- 
spondingly slow. On the other hand as the temper- 
ature is raised above 100° F., the activity of the 
rennet is at first increased, but after about 130° F. 
is reached the active principle is rapidly weakened 
and finally destroyed at about 140° F. 

The activity of rennet is also intimately connected 
with the lime salts in the ash of the milk, and par- 
ticularly with their condition as to solubility. The 
presence of soluble salts of lime renders rennet much 
more active, while the insoluble salts of lime have 



248 Milk and Its Products 

a correspondingly retarding effect. Thus, the develop- 
ment of lactic acid by rendering the lime salts more 
soluble hastens the action of rennet on the milk. On 
the other hand, when milk is heated to a tempera- 
ture above 150° F. a part of the lime salts is made 
insoluble, and the action of the rennet correspond- 
ingly retarded, even though the milk be again cooled 
to a temperature at which rennet is active. The 
coagulability of milk is similarly affected by the addi- 
tion of any lime salt not normally present in milk. 
Thus, if calcium oxalate or other insoluble- salt of 
lime is added to milk, the action of rennet is 
retarded. On the other hand, the addition of cal- 
cium chloride or other soluble salt is followed by a 
quicker action of the rennet. 

The rennet skin should be obtained from an 
animal of some age. Still-born calves, or calves less 
than three days old, furnish a rennet of very inferior 
quality. The calf should be slaughtered three or 
four hours after it has had a full meal, and the 
fourth stomach carefully taken out. This should be 
emptied by turning inside out and any particles 
of foreign matter carefully picked off ; it should 
not be washed with water. It should then be 
sprinkled with salt and stretched in such a manner 
that it will readily dry. 

At the present time the preparation of the rennet 
extract from the skins is entirely a commercial one, 
and rennet so much superior, on account of its 
uniform strength and freedom from taints, is fur- 
nished in this way that it is not advisable to prepare 



Separation of Whey 249 

the rennet for use from the skins. In the prepara- 
tion of the extract, the skins are soaked in warm 
water to which a little salt has been added until the 
active principle has been completely removed from 
them. The resulting extract is filtered, and preserva- 
tives, in the shape of salt and a little saltpetre, 
are added. Rennet so prepared will retain its 
strength and purity for a considerable length of 
time, if kept in a cool, dark place. 

Removal of whey. — After the coagulation of the 
milk is complete its constitution is as follows : 92.5 
parts soluble, 7.5 parts insoluble. The soluble por- 
tions are made up of water 87, sugar 4.5, albumin 
.75, ash .25. The insoluble are made up of casein 
3.25, fat 3.75, ash .5. The separation of these two 
is the chief task of the cheese maker, and is brought 
about partly by mechanical and partly by chemical or 
physical agents. The chief mechanical agents in 
the separation are cutting the curd, stirring, and the 
application of pressure. The chemical and phys- 
ical agents in effecting the separation are : First, 
application of heat ; second, development of lactic 
acid ; third, addition of salt ; fourth, curing fermenta- 
tion. These various agents may be applied in va- 
rious degrees and in various ways, all of which have 
a greater or less effect upon the character of the 
resulting cheese, producing an almost endless variety 
of product. The process that we shall describe is 
one in common use in America, although first prac- 
ticed in England. It it known as the American 
Cheddar process, and is a modification in minor de- 



250 Milk and Its Products 

tails of the process first employed at least 250 years 
ago, in the district about the village of Cheddar in 
Somerset, England, from which it takes its name, 
and from which it has spread more or less over 
the whole world. Cheddar cheese is still made in 
Somerset, as well as in other parts of Great Britain, 
notably Ayrshire. It is with minor variations the 
process most commonly employed in the United States, 
Canada and Australia, and one of its distinctive fea- 
tures, namely the matting of the curd after the whey 
is drawn, is used in making many other varieties 
of cheese, as the Cheshire, Leicestershire and Derby- 
shire in England, the Edam and Gouda in Holland, 
and perhaps others. 



CHAPTER XIV 

CHEDDAR CHEESE MAKING 

The successive steps in the manufacture of Ched- 
dar cheese may be conveniently grouped into seven 
stages or periods, as follows : Period first, setting ; 
period second, cutting ; period third, heating ; period 
fourth, cheddaring ; period fifth, grinding ; period 
sixth, salting and pressing ; period seventh, curing. 

Period I., setting. — The rennet is most active at 
.temperatures from near that of the body, 98° to 
100° P., up to about 130° P., and if added to the 
milk at these temperatures will most quickly cause 
coagulation (p. 245), but at high temperatures there 
is more tendency of the fat to separate, and for this 
reason the milk is warmed to a degree sufficient to 
cause fairly rapid coagulation, and at the same time 
not injure the fat. This will vary from 82° to 86° P., 
according to conditions. The milk, when brought to 
the factory, is collected in the vats and the whole 
mass gradually warmed up to the proper tempera- 
ture, with frequent gentle stirring to prevent any 
separation of the fat in the form of cream. When 
the whole mass is warmed up to 82° the milk is 
tested for ripeness, and if sufficiently ripe the ren- 
net is added at once, but if the milk is insuffi- 

(251) 



252 Milk and Its Products 

ciently ripe a starter is then added, and the milk 
allowed to stand at this temperature until a suffi- 
cient amount of acid has developed, care being 
taken that it is frequently stirred and no cream 
allowed to rise. 

The rennet should be added in sufficient quan- 
tity to cause the milk to coagulate in from ten to 
fifteen minutes, and to be ready for the knife in 
from thirty to thirty -five minutes. It was formerly 
supposed that the amount of rennet added had an 
effect upon the whole process of manufacture, and 
particularly upon the curing fermentation, but while 
the matter is still unsettled, later researches go to 
show that the influence of the rennet upon the 
curing is probably very slight. The amount of ren- 
net to be used will also vary with the strength of the 
extract ; two to three fluid ounces of rennet, of or- 
dinary strength, per thousand pounds of milk is 
sufficient. The rennet should be added to the milk 
in such a way that the coagulation will be uniform 
throughout the whole mass. If the rennet is added 
in full strength and at a high temperature, the 
milk will be immediately curdled as soon as the 
particles of rennet come in contact with it, and 
coagulation will begin in part of the mass before 
the rennet can be thoroughly united with the whole 
body of milk. The rennet should be diluted with 
twenty to fifty times its own bulk of cold water. 
The dilution renders the uniform mingling of the 
rennet with the milk easier, and the cold water 
keeps it inactive until it has been warmed up to the 



Setting and Cutting 253 

temperature of the milk. So soon as the rennet is 
added, the milk should be quickly and carefully 
stirred, so that the rennet may be uniformly mingled 
with every part of it. This stirring should continue 
until the mixture of rennet and milk is complete, 
but should stop before any appearance of coagula- 
tion. The milk in the vat is then allowed to be- 
come quiet, and remains undisturbed while the pro- 
cess of coagulation is going on, the object being to 
secure a uniformly solid clot or coagulum through 
the mass. The action of the rennet is not instanta- 
neous ; the first appearance of coagulation is noticed 
by a slight thickening of the milk. This gradually 
increases until the whole mass is solid, and if left 
undisturbed the action of the rennet continues to 
contract the coagulated casein and cause a partial 
separation of the whey. As soon as the coagulation 
is strong enough, so that the casein will maintain 
its shape when broken, the contents of the vat are 
ready for the next step in the process. 

Period II., cutting. — The curd, as the coagulated 
casein is called, is ready for cutting when under 
strain it will break with a clean fracture. This is 
conveniently tested by gently inserting the finger in 
the curd in an oblique position and slightly raising 
it, when if the curd breaks clean across the finger 
it is sufficiently firm for cutting. Cutting is per- 
formed in order to facilitate the further contraction 
of the casein and the expulsion of the whey. For- 
merly the solid mass of curd was broken up into 
small pieces by any sort of an instrument that 



254 Milk and Its Products 

migM be at hand, or simply with the lingers, no 
care being taken that the pieces of curd should be 
of uniform shape or size, but now gangs of steel 
knives, in one of which the blades are arranged 
horizontally and the other perpendicularly, are used 
to cut the mass of curd into cubes of about % of 
an inch in diameter. The fat is retained in the 
cheese by being enclosed in the meshes of the casein, 
and in breaking up the mass of casein, a certain 
number of fat globules is always set free. The 
care with which the cutting and subsequent hand- 
ling of the curd is done controls the loss of fat 
through this source. Formerly, the mass of curd 
was allowed to become very firm before cutting,, but 
the more recent practice has shown that the best 
results in expelling the whey from the curd are 
reached when the curd is cut, so soon as it has 
sufficiently coagulated to maintain its form. The 
curd is cut by passing the horizontal knife through 
the vat, usually in a longitudinal direction, and then 
by passing the perpendicular knife both longitudi- 
nally and crosswise of the vat. It is immaterial 
whether the horizontal or perpendicular knives are 
used first. Some skilled cheese -makers prefer the 
one practice and some the other. The object to be 
attained is to break up the curd into as uniform 
a mass of kernels as possible, or, in the language 
of the cheese -maker, to secure an "even cut." After 
the curd is cut, the whey begins to escape, and the 
curd sinks to the bottom of the vat. If allowed to 
remain undisturbed, the cut surfaces of the particles 



Heating or Cooking 255 

of curd readily unite, and in breaking them apart 
again more fat is lost. Hence as soon as the curd 
is cut, gentle agitation of the whole mass should 
begin. This agitation should be sufficient to cause 
the particles to move upon one another, but not 
violent enough to break them up. The curd rapidly 
shrinks and hardens ; more rapidly upon the outside 
than the inside. This soon results in the formation 
of a so-called "membrane," which not only tends 
to prevent the particles from sticking together, but 
affords some resistance to further breaking up. This 
"membrane" is pervious to water, but retains the 
globules of fat ; so as soon as the contraction has 
reached this point, or when the curd is well "healed 
over," the further expulsion of the water should be 
aided by heat, and this point begins the third step. 
Period III., heating or cooking. — The term "cook- 
ing," as a|)plied to the manufacture of cheese, is a 
misnomer so far as it relates to any change in the 
composition or condition of the material through 
the effect of heat. By cooking any ordinary sub- 
stance is meant the application of a degree of heat 
sufficient to cause a coagulation of albuminous sub- 
stances or a breaking down of starchy ones. The 
degree of heat used in cheese making during this 
stage never reaches anywhere near this point, and 
never, except in rare instances, is a temperature of 
blood heat exceeded. The change to be brought about 
in this process is wholly the contraction of the curd 
and the consequent expulsion of water from within 
the particles. To this end the heat serves a two- 



256 Milk and Its Products 

fold and important part. The curd is contracted to 
some extent by the action of the rennet still con- 
tinuing ; also to some extent by the direct applica- 
tion of the heat, but to a greater extent by the 
effect of lactic acid upon the curd, the production 
of lactic acid being greatly favored by the increased 
temperature. It is desirable that this contraction of 
the curd in the cooking stage go on uniformly through- 
out the whole mass. The heat is therefore applied 
gradually and with constant stirring. As the parti- 
cles of curd shrink in size, the tendency for them 
to unite in masses constantly diminishes, and they 
are broken with greater difficulty, so that while at 
first extreme care is necessary to prevent the par- 
ticles of curd from becoming broken, as the temper- 
ature rises, the stirring may become more rapid and 
vigorous. The heat should be raised slowly frqpa 
the setting point of the milk up to 98° F., and it 
should, not be more rapid than 2° in five minutes; 
and unless the lactic acid develops very rapidly it 
is better to take even more time than this. When 
the temperature of 98° F. is reached, the stirring 
may cease and the particles of curd be allowed to 
settle upon the bottom of the vat until the curd is 
thoroughly shrunken and a sufficient amount of 
lactic acid has been developed. At the end of the 
cooking stage the particles of curd should have 
shrunken to less than one -half of their former size, 
and should have become so hard that when pressed 
together between the hands, and the pressure sud- 
denly relaxed, they will fall apart, and show no 



Cheddaring or Matting 257 

tendency to stick together. By this time there should 
have developed a sufficient amount of lactic acid so 
that the curd will draw out in fine threads a 
quarter of an inch long when applied to the hot 
iron. 

When the curd has reached the highest temper- 
ature, it may be allowed to settle, and a part of the 
whey may be drawn off the top of the vat. This 
is of advantage particularly when the development 
of lactic acid is likely to be rapid, and it is de- 
sirable to separate the whey from the curd in a very 
short time, but sufficient whey should be left to 
cover all of the curd two or three inches deep 
until sufficient acid has been developed for the 
cheddaring process. 

Period IV., cheddaring, or matting. — When suffi- 
cient acid has developed in the whey, it is drawn 
off from the vat through the gate or by means 
of a syphon. The curd is then allowed to mat 
together into a mass, which is the distinctive fea- 
ture of the Cheddar process. This matting together 
may be done either in the vat or in a special 
vessel, called a curd sink. In the former case, 
when all the whey is run off the particles of curd 
are brought together upon the two sides of the vat 
and a channel opened between them, so that any 
whey held by the particles of curd may be al- 
lowed to escape. When the particles of curd are 
sufficiently matted together to maintain themselves in- 
tact, the mass is cut up into blocks about 8x8x12 
inches, and these blocks are turned over so that 

Q 



258 Milk and Its Products 

the part that was uppermost comes in contact with 
the bottom of the vat. A further draining of the 
whey takes place, and the blocks of curd are next 
piled upon one another two deep, care being taken 
in forming these piles that the parts that were ex- 
posed to the air are turned in. Later on the curd 
is piled again in still deeper piles, and as the pro- 
cess continues the mass is piled over and over 
again, care being taken that the exposed parts of one 
pile are put into the interior of the succeeding, so 
that the heat may be uniform throughout the whole 
mass. In the curd sink the manipulation is not 
essentially different. The curd sink is a square 
wooden receptacle fitted with a false slatted bottom 
and covered with coarse cotton or linen cloth, 
through which the whey can easily escape. When 
the time comes for separating the whey, so much 
as will run off readily is drawn off, and the re- 
maining whey, mixed with particles of curd, is 
dipped into the sink, the whey runs off freely 
through the strainer and slatted bottom, and the 
curd, being spread over the whole surface of 
the sink, soon mats into a solid mass, and the 
piling process goes on the same way as is done 
in the vat. During this process various changes 
take place. The pressure of the particles of curd 
upon one another serves to expel a large part of 
the whey that still remains ; at the same time the 
temperature is kept sufficiently high so that the 
production of lactic acid is not checked. The effect 
of the acid is to cause a series of marked changes 



Grinding 



259 



in the physical condition of the curd. From the 
condition of a tough, spongy mass when first ched- 
dared, the curd changes into a smooth, elastic, 
fibrous condition, not unlike the physical appearance 
of well cooked, lean meat. When the curd reaches 
the condition above described it is ready for the 
next step in the process, and by this time sufficient 
lactic acid will have developed so that fine threads 
may be drawn out two to three inches on a hot 
iron. 

Period V., grinding. — When the curd is ready for 
grinding, the whey has been removed to so great 

an extent that the pro- 
duction of lactic acid 
measurably stops. The 
curd is ground in or- 
der to reduce it to 
particles of convenient 
size for receiving the 
salt and for pressing 
into a solid mass in 
the cheese. The grind- 
ing, or more properly 
the cutting, is done in 
special machines known 
as curd mills. Of the 
various styles of mills, those are best which cut 
the curd into pieces of uniform size, without tearing 
it apart, for the reason that when so treated less fat 
escapes and the uniformity of size of the pieces aids 
in the proper and even absorption of the salt by the 




Fig. 25. "Harris" curd mill. 



260 



Milk and Its Products 



curd. After the curd is ground, it is kept sufficiently 
stirred to keep the particles from matting together 




Fig. 43. " MacPherson" curd mill. 

again. A further maturing of the curd takes place, 
during which it takes on a peculiar nutty flavor, 
and the particles of casein begin to break down 
so that the fat may be re- 
moved by pressure. When 
this stage is reached the curd 
is ready for the next step, 
which is salting. 

Feriod VI., salting. — Salt is 
added to the curd primarily for 
the sake of the flavor it im- 
parts to the cheese, just as 
salt is added to butter : but the 
addition of the salt to the curd 
has a further effect in the pro- 
cess of manufacture. The salt 
makes the curd drier by reason of extracting the 
water for its own solution, and at the, same time 




Fig. 44. Section of 
curd mill. 



Pohl" 



Salting and Pressing. 261 

hardens the curd. It also checks the further devel- 
opment of lactic acid. The salt should be uniformly 
mixed through the curd, and the curd kept stirred 
until it is fully dissolved. A salt of rather coarse 
grain is preferable for cheese. It requires a some- 
what longer time for solution, and the particles of 
the salt are carried to the centre of the pieces of 
curd more effectually. When the salt is thoroughly 
dissolved the curd is ready to put in the press. 

During the cheddaring and grinding stage va- 
rious means, as covering with cloths, etc., have 
been taken to keep up the temperature of the curd, 
and at the time when the cheese is ready to salt 
it should not be below 90° F. When the salt is 
added the curd should be spread out thin, so that 
it will cool off, and when it is put into the press 
should be at a temperature of from 78° to 82° F. 
If the curd is put in the press too warm, the fat 
is more easily pressed out and lost. On the other 
hand, if the curd is at too low a temperature when 
put in the press, it is more difficult to make the 
particles adhere together into a solid mass. The 
object of pressing the cheese is to bring it into a 
form suitable for transportation and convenient for 
consumption. The pressure also removes any surplus 
moisture that is in the curd ; but the primary object 
of pressing is not to remove moisture. In fact, all 
of the moisture that is removed from the cheese by 
the press is that held by capillarity between the par- 
ticles of curd, and practically none can be expressed 
from the particles themselves. If the curd is too 



262 Milk and Its Products 

wet at this stage, it is because care was not taken 
to expel the moisture from the particles of the 
curd in the cooking process, and it cannot be re- 
moved by extra pressure. An ideal condition of 




Fig, 45. " Fraser" continuous pressure gang cheese press. 

the cheese is to so press it that the particles will 
unite together in as nearly as may be a solid 
mass. This will depend upon the temperature and 
maturity of the curd. If the curd is put in press 
at the stage of maturity corresponding to the 
beginning of the cheddaring period, it will be 
very difficult to cause it to unite in a firm mass ; 
but if it is allowed to mature until the casein 
shows signs of breaking down, and then is not 



Curing 263 

lower than 78° F., a slight amount of pressure 
will cause the particles to unite in a smooth and 
solid mass. The pressure should be uniform and 
continuous for at least twenty hours. Where a 
screw press is used, care must be taken to tighten 
the screws as rapidly as they become loose, partic- 
ularly for the first hour after the cheese is put in 
the press. Those presses that are fitted with ap- 
pliances for taking up the slack and making the 
pressure continuous show excellent results in the 
texture of the cheese. After the cheese has been 
in the press for three -fourths of an hour it should 
be taken out, turned, the bandage straightened, and 
the whole cheese wiped with a cloth wrung out of 
water as hot as can be borne by the hand. This 
warming of the surface aids in the formation of a 
firm, transparent rind, and it improves the appear- 
ance of the cured cheese. Seamless bandage is 
practically the only kind now used, and it should 
be cut of such a length that it will extend over 
each end of the cheese for an inch and a half or 
two inches ; when the cheese is put in the press, 
circular cap cloths should be put between the ends 
of the cheese and the follower. These cap cloths are 
allowed to remain upon the cheese after it is taken 
from the press and while it is curing, and are re- 
moved just before the cheese is boxed for market. 

Period VII., curing. — The green cheese, when 
taken from the press, if exposed to a temperature 
of about 70° in a pure atmosphere, undergoes a 
series of fermentations which result in breaking 



264 Milk and Its Products 

down or rendering soluble the casein and in the 
development of the characteristic flavors peculiar to 
good cheese. These flavors are almost entirely de- 
veloped during the ripening process. The ripening 
is brought about by a series of fermentations that 
goes on in the cheese. It is not well understood 
just what these fermentations are ; but it seems 
evident that at least in the early stages of the 
curing, lactic acid germs are active, although the 
greater majority of these disappear after a short 
time. During the ripening process, oxygen is taken 
up and carbonic acid given off. The quality of 
the cheese is best when the ripening process goes 
on gradually and continually. The higher the tem- 
perature the faster the ripening will go on , an 
extreme temperature of 65° or 70° giving the best 
results. At the end of from four to six weeks the 
casein will be so broken down that the cheese is 
fairly digestible and fit for consumption, though if 
kept longer under good conditions the cheese will 
improve for three or four months, and then if kept 
moderately cool, and in not too moist nor too dry 
an atmosphere, it may be kept one or two years. 

If the cheese is well made, if the whey has been 
thoroughly separated in the process of making and if 
the milk was sound and free from taints, the ripening 
process will go on regularly even at low temperatures, 
though the time required is much longer. The result- 
ing cheese will be of the best possible flavor and tex- 
ture. The practice is now quite general to remove the 
cheese at the age of seven to ten days at once to cold 



''Gassif Curds 265 

storage (30° to 35° F.) and to leave them there for 
several months till fully ripe. This practice is par- 
ticularly common with cheese intended for winter or 
export trade. During the early part of the curing 
process the cheeses should be turned upon the shelves 
every day until a sufficient amount of water has evapo- 
rated, so that they no longer tend to lose their shape. 

DifficMlties lihely to occur in cheddar cheese mali- 
ing. — The chief difficulty in cheddar cheese making 
comes from the presence in the milk of germs 
which produce fermentations that are undesirable 
These fermentations usually begin during the cook- 
ing process, and continue through cheddaring. Or- 
dinarily they evolve a considerable amount of gas, 
causing what are known as floating or gassy curds, 
and are usually accompanied by disagreeable odors 
and flavors. The formation of the gas in the curd 
gives it a sponge -like texture, and when the par- 
ticles of curd are cut across they are seen to be 
full of minute holes, the condition usually denom- 
inated pin-holes. The best means of treating this 
trouble is, of course, prevention; but even with the 
utmost care by makers of experience, milk contain- 
ing the germs of these fermentations will find its 
way into the vat. 

In many cases the trouble from gassy and tainted 
milk is caused by the milk of one or two dairies, 
and in exceptional cases the milk of a single cow 
may infect a whole vat. The particular dairies or 
even cows that are causing the trouble may usually be 
detected by employing one of the fermentation tests 



266 Milk and Its Products 

described in Appendix A. Ordinarily these fermenta- 
tions do not work with the lactic fermentation ; each 
hinders the action of the other so that the chief 
means of overcoming the difficulty of gas or pin-hole 
curds is to favor in every way possible the pro- 
duction of lactic acid. To this end the milk is 
well ripened before the rennet is added, and the 
heat is raised as rapidlj^ as possible to a higher 
temperature of cooking than ordinarily is used. In 
extreme cases the curds may be heated as high 
as 104° F. After the whey has been drawn great 
care is taken to keep the temperature of the curd 
from falling, and at the same time the escape of 
the gas is favored by frequent turning and piling 
of the curd. Where the curds are gassy the ched- 
daring process must be continued until the formation 
of gas has ceased and the holes in the curd have 
collapsed. In extreme cases, where the gassy curds 
have produced very strong, undesirable flavors, these 
may be removed by drenching with hot water. The 
means used to prevent the development of gas, and 
to get rid of the gas already formed, ordinarily favor 
the escape of fat from the cheese, so that while the 
bad effects of the gassy curd may be largely elimi- 
nated from the finished cheese, still it is always done 
at the expense of a certain loss of fat. 

Another difficulty that often confronts the cheese- 
maker is that coming from the milk arriving in too 
ripe a condition, not necessarily accompanied by un- 
desirable fermentations. In the case of such milk, 
the development of lactic acid is very rapid and the 



Flavor and Texture 267 

curds, technically described, "work fast." When this 
occurs, the production of lactic acid is more rapid 
than the shrinking of the curd, and the whey is 
sufficiently acid to be drawn off before the curd has 
shrunken down. In this case, the curd should be 
thoroughly and continually stirred after the whey 
is drawn until the whey has been well worked out 
before the curd is allowed to cheddar ; but where 
it is known at the beginning of the process that 
the milk is over -ripe, care should be taken through- 
out the whole process to use every means to re- 
tard the formation of lactic acid, and at the same 
time to cause as rapid a shrinking of the curd as 
possible. To this end, the milk may be set at a 
lower temperature and a larger amount of rennet 
used, and when the curd is cut it should be stirred 
until the whey has well separated before the heat- 
ing process begins.' With care in these particulars, 
there is slight danger of the formation of acid be- 
fore the curd has shrunken down. 

Qualities of cheese. — A well cured cheddar cheese 
of good quality should have about the following 
composition : 

Per cent. 

Water 34. 

Fat 36.8 

Casein and albumin 25.7 

Sugar, ash, etc. (largely salt) • . 3.5 

100. 

The characteristic flavors should be well pro- 
nounced but not strong, depending somewhat upon 
the age of the cheese. The flavor should also be 



268 Milk and Its Products 

clean ; that is, free from any flavors due to the 
influence of undesirable fermentations or to foreign 
matters that may have gained access to the milk 
through the food or otherwise. The texture should 
be solid, smooth and firm. When bored with the 
trier, the plug should come out solid, or nearly so, 
and smooth. There should be no moisture visible 
in any part, and no appearance of any separation 
of the fat from the casein. When crushed, the cheese 
should readily break down into a smooth, unctuous 
mass, without indication of the presence of undue 
moisture, and should emit a pleasant, nutty flavor. 
When broken across, the flaky texture should be 
manifest, the so-called "flinty break." The color 
should be uniform, not mottled, and with more or 
less of a tendency to translucence, especially in new 
uncolored cheese. The rind should be smooth, with- 
out cracks, hard and transparent. The bandage 
should extend evenly over the ends of the cheese for 
about two inches and should be straight and smooth. 
The ends of the cheese should be parallel and the 
sides straight. These various qualities are usually 
ranked according to the following scale : 

Per cent. 

Flavor 45 

Texture 35 

Color 15 

Finish 5 

100 



CHAPTER XY 

OTHER VARIETIES OF CHEESE 

Slight variations in any of the minor details of 
the cheese making processes have a distinct influence 
on the character of the finished product. A natural 
result of this is that the varieties of cheese are 
almost innumerable. Von Klenze* in his Hand Book 
of Cheese Technology describes no less than 156 dif- 
ferent kinds, whose manufacture is distributed through 
Europe and America. Not only is the number of dis- 
tinct kinds very large, but the same kind or variety 
varies greatly in character and quality, according to 
the conditions under which it is made. Without at- 
tempting to accurately classify the various kinds of 
cheese, it may be said that they fall roughly into 
about three natural groups or classes. First, those 
whose chief characteristics depend upon the amount 
of water that has been removed in the process of 
manufacture. These we may call hard or soft cheeses. 
Second, those whose qualities depend upon the 
amount of fat which the cheese contains, whether 
it is the normal amount of the milk, whether a part 
of the fat has been removed, as in the case of 
skimmed or partially skimmed cheeses, or whether fat 
has been added to the milk as in the case of the so- 

*Von Klenze, Handbueh der Kaserei-Technik, Bremen, 1884. 

(269) 



270 Mill and Its Products 

called cream cheeses. And third those whose dis 
tinctive characteristics depend upon the sort of fer- 
mentation to which they have been subjected. The 
details of manufacture upon which the peculiar char- 
acters depend are, in many cases, so intricate and 
minute that it is practically impossible so to describe 
them that a novice might successfully follow out the 
directions. The actual practice must in most cases 
be learned at the hands of an experienced teacher. 
We shall, therefore, limit our discussion to a few of 
the better known and most largely manufactured 
varieties. The introduction of the ISo-called fancy 
varieties in America is in its infancy, but is rapidly 
developing, and bids fair to become a most impor- 
tant diversification of the dairy industry. 

American home -trade, or stirred -ciird cheese. — The 
popular consumptive demand of most American mar- 
kets requires a softer and milder flavored cheese 
than the cheddar or export type. This is brought 
about by incorporating a larger amount of water with 
the curd, and by hastening the curing process, and 
not curing it so far as is ordinarily done with a well- 
ripened Cheddar. The details of the manufacture of 
the American home -trade and the American cheddar 
or export are in the main similar. In fact, the two 
processes merge into one another in such a way that 
we find a regular gradation in the cheese from the 
softest, mildest, short-keeping stirred-curd cheese to 
the most solid, long -keeping cheddar. The distinctive 
differences in the two processes of manufacture are 
that in the home -trade cheese, after drawing the whey 



^' Home- Trade,'' or '' Stirred- Curd'' 271 

the curd is not allowed to mat into a mass or Ched- 
dar, but is kept stirred in such a way that the whey 
will drain off until it is dry enough so that the par- 
ticles of curd will not unite. It is then salted and, 
with more or less further maturing of the curd, is 
pressed and cured. The character of the resulting 
cheese, however, depends quite as much upon the 
amount and character of the changes that go on in 
the curd after the whey is drawn, and before it is 
put into press, as upon the mere fact of allowing it 
to pack in a mass (cheddar) or keeping it apart by 
stirring. If the cheddar variety is ground shortly after 
matting, and immediately salted and put to press, 
the resulting cheese will resemble the stirred -curd 
type. On the other hand, if the stirred -curd is kept 
warm and frequently stirred, many of the same 
changes will go on as in the cheddared curd, and 
the cheese when cured will resemble the cheddar type. 
Another distinction between the two processes is that 
in the case of the cheddar cheese the aim is to get rid of 
all the water consistent with a compact union of the par- 
ticles of casein. In the manufacture of the stirred-curd 
cheese, on the other hand, the aim is to retain as much 
water as possible without having it appear in the form 
of free water in the cheese. To this end, in the stirred- 
curd process those influences which tend to contact the 
curd, namely, the application of heat and the development 
of lactic acid, are not carried so far as in the cheddar pro- 
cess. In fact, in many cases they are not carried far 
enough to remove all of the water, and some remains in 
the cheese, making a "wet," "sloppy" or "leaky" cheese. 



272 Milk and Its Products 

In order to obviate the difficulties th?t arise from 
leaving too much whey in the curd and still make a 
cheese of soft texture, the practice of "washing" or 
"soaking" curds has come into use. An ordinary 
Cheddar or stirred -curd is made, making it dry and firm. 
When ready for the press the curd is immersed in cold 
water (60° F.) for fifteen to forty minutes. The water 
acts to remove bad flavors that may have been pres- 
ent in the milk and the curd swells and absorbs a 
considerable amount of water. The resulting cheese 
has a soft melting texture but the flavor is usually 
deficient or no better than would have resulted from 
leaving too much whey in the curd. 

Because of the larger amount of water it contains, 
this kind of cheese is profitable to the producer of 
the milk and to the manufacturer, and when properly 
made and carefully cured, it may be of excellent 
quality, being mild, creamy and soft; but largely, 
too, because of the large amount of water contained 
in it, it is easily subject to decomposition changes, goes 
off flavor rapidly, and does not bear transportation well. 
Sage cheese. — In many parts of the United States this 
cheese is very popular for local consumption. Its 
manufacture is not different from the ordinary type of 
cheese, either cheddar or stirred -curd, but an infusion 
of sage leaves, or sage extract (in which latter case the 
green color is secured by an infusion of fresh leaves of 
any inert plant, as clover, green corn, etc.), is added to 
the milk before the rennet coagulation, and imparts a 
light greenish color and characteristic flavor to the curd . 
Ordinarily, where sage cheese is made, the sage is 



Young America and Neufchatel 273 

added to only a part of the milk, and two separate 
curds are manufactured simultaneously, and mixed 
together as they are put in the press, resulting in 
cheese of a mottled green color. 

Young America, picnics, pineapple, and truckle 
cheese. — These are names applied to various forms 
of small cheeses. The truckle and Young America 
cheeses in particular are small cheeses of the Ched- 
dar or other common type, pressed in sizes of six 
to ten pounds weight. Picnics are somewhat larger 
and are usually pressed in 10 -inch hoops and weigh 
from 20 to 25 pounds. They are usuallj^ soft and 
mild -flavored. The pineapple cheeses are pressed in 
shapes suggested by their name, and are generally 
made as firm and solid as possible. 

N'eicfchatel is a soft uncured cheese, made by coagu- 
lating milk with rennet, allowing the resulting curd 
to become mildly acid and then removing the sur- 
plus moisture by drainage and pressure, after which 
the curd is ground, salted, molded in small cylin- 
ders 1% inches in diameter by 2% inches long and 
wrapped first in thin parchment paper and then in 
tin foil. Good Neufchatel should be soft, smooth 
and melting in the mouth without "mushiness," due 
to the retention of too much moisture. When properly 
made it can be subjected to very heavy pressure with- 
out losing its melting texture. Its flavor when 
fresh is simply the flavor of clean, mildly acid coagu- 
lated milk. The successful manufacture of Neuf- 
chatel depends upon securing both fine texture and 
good flavor, for while, as a rule, these two qualities 
R 



274 Milk and Its Products 

are closely connected, it is quite possible to have 
good texture with objectionable flavor. It is prob- 
able that the same conditions of temperature and 
germ growth that are most favorable to ripening 
cream for churning are also most favorable for the 
manufacture of Neufchatel cheese. At any rate, the 
milk should have some degree of ripeness before the 
rennet is added. It is essential that the milk be 
clean and pure, that the acidity is developed to the 
proper point in the curd, and that sufficient pressure 
is applied. When experience in these last two points 
is gained, the remainder of the process is compara- 
tively simple, and in fact, many of the details may 
be varied to a greater or less extent. Good clean 
milk is not less important than in cheddar cheese 
making, as gassy ferments often make trouble. A 
good pure -culture starter, giving a mild develop- 
ment of acid, will prove of great assistance in hand- 
ling gassy milk. The rennet is added to the milk 
at a low temperature (70° to 80° F.) at the rate of 
1% to 2% ounces per 1,000 pounds. Too little ren- 
net will give trouble by making a curd that is very 
difficult to drain, and that tends to pass through 
the press cloths when pressed. An excess of rennet 
results in a curd of hard texture. It is better to 
add the rennet to the whole mass of milk in a vat, 
and then as soon as the rennet is thoroughly mixed 
with the milk, to draw it off into "shot-gun" cans 
(8 inches in diameter and 20 inches deep) for coagu- 
lation. The milk should be warm enough and also 
ripe enough, so that coagulation will take place 



Neufchatel 



iO 



before much cream rises to the surface. The tem- 
perature of the room may vary within rather wide 
limits, though if it is above 80° F. the curd is likely 
to be hard and tough, while if it is 60° F. or below, 
the curd is not injured, though the process is greatly 
retarded. Probably the same rule holds here as in 
cream -ripening, namely, that it is not possible to 
name a single temperature arbitrarily as the cor- 
rect one. The most important point in the whole 
process is to determine wlaen the curd should be 
dumped from the coagulating cans upon the drain- 
ing cloths. It should stand until the whey is 
markedly acid to the taste, as much so as mildly 
ripened cream, and until the hand passed down 
between the sides of the can and the curd not^s 
that the latter is firm, with a peculiar elastic cush- 
iony feel. The amount of whey that gathers on the 
top of the curd is not a safe indication of the time 
to dump, for at high temperatures a large amount 
of whey often separates while it is still sweet, and 
in case of gassy fermentations the curd floats and 
the whey is found at the bottom. If the cans are 
dumped before sufficient acid has developed, it will 
be very difficult to drain the curds, the flavor will 
be very bad, the texture pasty and slimy, and later, 
as the acid develops, an additional amount of whey 
will separate ; making a leaky cheese. When ready, 
the cans of coagulated milk should be dumped on 
draining racks 15x24 inches, with slatted bottoms 
covered with heavy, closely-woven cotton sheeting. 
The dumping should be carefully and skilfully done, 



276 Milk and Its Products 

so that the curd slides out of the can with as little 
breaking as possible. The conditions are best when 
the mass of curd, on being dumped, retains its form 
and breaks with a clean vitreous fracture. The 
time required for drainage may range from two to 
twenty -four hours, varying with the temperature, 
amount of rennet used, amount of acidity developed, 
and other unknown factors. When dry enough to 
handle easily, the cloths are folded up in such a 
manner as to enclose the curd, and the whole is 
pressed under rather heavy pressure till the proper 
consistency is secured. When taken from the press 
the cakes of curd are brought to a uniform con- 
sistency by kneading or working, or they may be 
passed through an ordinary meat chopper. About 
1% per cent of salt is then thoroughly incorporated 
and the cheese molded into the desired shape. 
The molding is a matter of some difficulty, as the 
particles of cheese move easily on themselves, while 
they tend to adhere to metal or wooden surfaces. 
Large factories have specially constructed machines 
for molding the cheese. On a small scale, the most 
satisfactory implement is a smooth tin tube of the 
proper diameter and long enough to hold two or 
three cheeses. The tube is filled full of the curd 
and then forced out of one end with a smoothly 
fitting piston, after which the cheeses are cut apart 
with a thread and neatly wrapped first in thin parch- 
ment paper and then in tin foil. According to the 
quality of milk, from 60 to 80 standard cheeses should 
be made from 100 pounds of milk. 



Philadelphia or Square Creams 277 

Philadelphia or square cream cheese. — This is a 
soft cheese growing in popularity in proximity to 
many of our larger markets. It resembles the Neuf- 
chatel, but is made of cream of varying degrees of 
richness and is put up in a different form. It is 
molded in flat, thin cakes 3x4 inches, in a flat tin 
mold, wrapped in parchment paper, and packed for 
shipment. Its manufacture is practically the same 
as Neufchatel, and, in fact, there is more or less 
confusion of nomenclature between the two, as well 
as a good deal of variation in fat content, some 
brands of Neufchatel having a higher fat content 
than some brands of square cream, and vice versa. 

Some of the older writers describe a cream cheese 
made by simply draining and lightly pressing in 
square blocks a thick cream obtained by setting milk; 
in shallow pans, heating over water till the cream 
"crinkles," and setting in a cool place for twelve to 
twenty -four hours. 

Limhurger. — The Limburger is one of the varieties 
of cheese whose characteristics are due to specific 
fermentations brought into the cheese during the 
ripening process. These fermentations result in a 
well known putrefactive odor and pungent flavor. 
According to Monrad,* the manufacture of Limburger 
in America and Europe is not greatly different. Or- 
dinarily the cheese is made from whole milk, but 
frequently skimmed or partly skimmed milk is used. 
In Europe the copper kettle is commonly employed ; 
in America both the kettle and the ordinary rectan- 

* Cheese-making in Switzerland. Winnetka, 111., 1896. 



278 Milk and Its Products 

gular cheese vat are used. In the latter case the 
curd is made in much the same way as for ordinary 
cheese up to the point when the whey is drawn off. 
The milk is set at a rather high temperature (92° to 
100° F.). The curd is broken into pieces the size 
of a hen's egg, and allowed to settle to the bottom 
of the kettle. It is then scooped out and put in 
rectangular molds arranged on tables, so that the 
whey may drain off. The molds are carefully turned 
till the whey has measurably ceased running, and the 
cheeses will maintain their form. They are then 
placed in rows on a flat table with thin pieces of 
board between them, and subjected to light pressure 
from the sides. The cheeses are turned frequently at 
first, and then at longer intervals, till at the end of 
thirty -six to forty -eight hours they may be taken 
from the press. They are then salted by rubbing 
salt on the ends and flat sides for three or four 
days. After the first salting they are laid on the 
table in single layers, afterward they are piled, at 
first two deep, then three or four deep, so that the 
absorption of the salt may be promoted. During 
salting and pressing they are kept at a uniform tem- 
perature of from 59° to 63° F. They are then cured 
in a cool (60° F.), well -ventilated cellar nearly satur- 
ated with moisture, with careful watching and much 
manipulation and turning. With the ripening they 
begin to soften. The curd, at first hard, takes on 
the characteristic glassy, greasy appearance, at the 
same time that the rind becomes at fii-st yellow, then 
reddish yellow. The softening begins on the outside 



Prepared Cheese 279 

and proceeds toward the center, and the cheeses are 
considered to be marketable when one -quarter of the 
cheese has taken on its characteristic texture. 

Imitation Swiss cheese. — A considerable amount of 
cheese closely resembling the true Emmenthaler is 
made in America. Its main distinctive characteristic 
lies in its peculiar flavor, and in the appearance of 
the peculiar, so-called Swiss holes in its texture. 
Both of these are due to specific fermentations, 
which take place in the cheese during the curing 
process. (See Emmenthaler cheese, page 289.) 

These are the principal varieties of cheese that 
are manufactured to any large extent in America. 
There are, however, a number of brands of cheese 
upon the market that, may properly be classed under 
the general name of 

Prepared cheese. — These fancy brands are in gen- 
eral made from an ordinary cheese of good quality, 
by removing the rind and reducing the remainder 
to a homogeneous, more or less pulpy, mass. To this 
is added a certain amount of additional fat, either in 
the shape of butter or other fat, and some flavoring 
matter in the form of cayenne pepper, brandy, or 
something of like nature. The cheese is then packed 
closely in fancy glass or earthenware packages, sealed 
tightly, and marketed. The names under which it is 
sold vary with the manufacturer and with the recipe 
under which it is made. Many of them are sold 
under registered trade -marks. Some of the better 
known are Club House, Meadow Sweet, Canadian 
Club, etc. 



280 Milk and Its Products 

Among the varieties of cheese of foreign manu- 
facture, the following are worthy of mention: 

English cheeses. — The various dairy localities in 
England produce cheeses bearing their distinctive 
geographical names. In the main, they are of the 
Cheddar type, and differ from the true cheddar only 
in details of manufacture and in slight differences 
in texture and flavor, in much the same way that 
the American home -trade cheese differs from the 
American cheddar. Of the English cheeses, the best 
known are the English Cheddar, Cheshire and Stilton; 
others worthy of mention are Leicestershire, Lanca- 
shire, Derbyshire, single and double Gloucester, Wens- 
leydale and Wiltshire. 

Stilton. — The manufacture of Stilton cheese is con- 
fined almost entirely to Leicestershire, England. Its 
manufacture is quite different from that of the com- 
mon type of English and American cheeses, and in 
many respects more nearly resembles many of the 
Continental varieties, and is almost exclusively con- 
fined to private dairies. It is made from sweet 
milk, and more commonly separate curds are made 
from both night's and morning's milk, the two being 
brought together when ready for the hoops. Stilton 
cheese is also made from a single curd, and in this 
case the night's milk is held till morning and 
mixed with the morning's milk. It is commonly sup- 
posed that Stilton cheese is made from milk which 
has been reinforced with more or less cream, but 
this is not the case at the present time ; in fact, 
Stilton cheese of good quality can be made from 



Stilton 



281 



milk not particularly rich in fat. In making Stilton 
cheese the fresh milk is put into a circular tin vat of 
sufficient size to hold the milk of the whole dairy. 
The milk is allowed 
to cool to about 85° 
F., and enough ren- 
net is. added to cause 
a firm coagulation in 
an hour or an hour 
and a quarter. While 
the milk is coagu- 
lating the strainers 
are arranged in 
sinks, as follows: 




Fig. 46 Straining-cloths containing curd. 
(Redrawn from Jour. Royal Agr. Soc, 
3rd Series, vol. x.) 



The sinks must be large 
enough to hold all the milk that is made at one 
time. Many makers prefer earthenware, though on 
account of the less cost, sinks of heavy tin are 
frequently used. They are about six inches deep, two 
to two and a half feet wide, and of any convenient 
length, and are simply fitted with outlets and plugs. 
For straining the curds stout linen cloths are used. 
These are a yard square and are arranged in the 
sinks as shown in Fig. 46, and are supported by 
sticks laid across the sink in such a way that the 
ends of each cloth may be gathered up without dis- 
turbing those next to it. When the milk is firmly 
coagulated, so that the curd is somewhat harder 
than for ordinary cheddar cheese making, the plugs 
are put into the sink and the curd dipped into 
the strainer with the curd ladle or scoop shown in 
Fig. 47. This is done with a peculiar deft motion 



282 



Milk and Its Products 




Fig. 47. Stilton curd scoop. 



in such a way that the scoop takes up a thin slab 
of curd, breaking it as little as possible. The curd 
is carefully laid in the strainer, each strainer receiv- 
ing a slice in turn 
until all the contents 
of the vat are col- 
lected in the strainers. 
The strainers when full 
should contain about 
three to four gal- 
lons. After dipping, 
the whey begins to separate and is allowed to stand 
until the curds are well covered, when the plugs are 
withdrawn and the whey allowed to run off. The 
ends of the strainers are then gathered up, brought 
closely about the curd, three corners being held in 
one hand and the 
whole tightened with 
the fourth, as shown 
in Fig. 48; care being 
taken in doing this 
that the curd is not 
broken. The pressure 
of the cloth causes the 
whey to separate more 
freely, and at intervals , 

of an hour the cloths I ^,^ ,,^ Method of tightening strainer 

are tightened about the Agf soc^'s'l^rieTvolTj ^"^^' 
curd until eight or ten 

hours have passed, when the curd should be firm 
and solid, and the whey entirely separated. The 




Stilton 



283 



cloths are now removed from the curd and the curd 

is cut into pieces about four inches square, and 

spread in the bottom of the sink and allowed to 

remain till morning or until it 

has taken on a good degree of ^^^^B 

acidity, so that it is distinctly ~^^ 

sour to the taste. If the room 

has been held at a temperature 

between 60° and 65° F., this will 

occur when the night's curd is 

36 and the morning's curd 24 

hours old. The two curds are 

then coarsely broken up 

with the fingers, mixed 

together, salted (about 

one ounce to three and 

a half pounds of curd), 

and put in the hoop 

shown in Fig. 49. The 

hoops are made of tin 

15 inches high, open at both ends and perforated 

with numerous holes. The empty hoop is set upon 

a thin piece of board 9 inches square, covered with a 

piece of muslin. The curd is put in the hoop 

loosely, care being taken that the larger pieces fall 

in the center, and the smaller ones go to the outside. 

The hoops when full are set aside to drain. Each 

day the curd is turned in the hoop, a fresh board 

and piece of cloth being used each time. After six 

to eight days the curd next the hoop begins to take 

on a fermentation, which gives it a moist appearance 




Fig. 49, Hoop for Stilton cheese. 

inches in diameter and 



284 Milk and Its Products 

and an aromatic odor. The curd also shrinks slightly 
so that the hoop slips from it easily. The cheeses 
are then ready for the coating process. The hoops 
are removed entirely and the cheese taken into 
another room, where the temperature is maintained 
at from 55° to 60° F., and the air is kept nearly 
saturated with moisture. The cheeses are scraped 
with a dull knife, the cracks being filled up with 
the material scraped from the more prominent places. 
After the scraping, a bandage is pinned firmly to 
the cheese. The scraping is continued from day 
to day for two or three days, clean bandages being 
put on each time until the coat begins to appear. 
This is seen in the formation of a white mold, and 
also in the appearance of dry patches upon the ban- 
dage. The bandages are now removed from the 
cheese, and it remains in the coating -room for about 
two weeks, being turned every day, and resting on 
a board covered with cloth. When the coat has 
fully formed, the surface of the cheese is a light 
drab, of a wrinkled appearance, and is then ready 
for the curing -room. The curing -room is kept at 
the same or a little higher temperature than the 
coating -room, and the atmosphere may be somewhat 
drier, though care must be taken that it is not too 
dry. Curing goes on slowly for two or three 
months, after which the cheese maj' be removed to 
a cool cellar and will continue to improve for some 
time longer. During the curing process the mold 
begins to grow in the interior of the cheese, and 
when fully ripe the cheese should be evenly mottled 



Stilton 



285 



and veined with blue mold through its whole sub- 
stance. A well-made and well -cured Stilton cheese 
has a rough, wrinkled, drab exterior. The cheese 




Fig. 50. Stilton cheese, from " Stilton Cheese Making," by J. Marshall Dugdale, 
Joiir. Royal Agr. Soc, 3rd Series, vol. x., through the courtesy of the Sec- 
retary of the Royal Agricultural Society of England-. 



itseif is of a soft, uniform texture, pale-colored, and 
evenly streaked with mold. The flavor is mild and 
largely characteristic of the mold. The appearance 
of the cheese is well shown in the cut, Fig. 50. 



286 Milk and Its Products 

Cheshire. — Cheshire is a cheese of the ordinary- 
type, soft in texture and rather high in flavor. It 
takes its name from the countj^ in England where 
it is most largely made, and is one of the most 
important of English cheeses. Cheshire cheese is 
made from whole milk, night^s and morning's milk 
mixed together and of some degree of ripeness. In 
many dairies the night's milk is skimmed in the 
morning before the morning's milk is added to it, 
and the cream so obtained reserved to be added to 
the cream of the following day at the same time 
that the cream removed the day before is added to 
the milk from which the cream is takeii. This is 
done in order to secure a certain degree of ripe- 
ness. The milk is set at about 85° F., with enough 
rennet to cause a rather firm coagulation in about 
an hour. It is then cut with a perpendicular knife 
lengthwise of the vat, and allowed to stand ten 
minutes or until a considerable amount of whey is 
separated, and is then cut crosswise and a second 
time lengthwise. It is not ordinarily cut with the 
horizontal knife at all. After cutting, it is care- 
fully stirred with the hand for about an hour, dur- 
ing the latter part of which time heat is applied 
to bring the contents of the vat back again to 
85° F. When the curd is firm enough so that a 
piece thrown 15 to 18 inches in the air and caught 
in the hand does not break it is allowed to settle, 
usually for about half an hour, but before any acid 
develops in the whey the curd is carefully pushed 
to one end of the vat and the whey drawn off. 



Cheshire 287 

The curd then mats and is cut and piled much as 
in the Cheddar system, except that the pieces are 
cut smaller and the cutting is renewed each time 
the curd is turned, and the piling is done in such 
a way that the curd does not flatten out. The 
acidity and moisture of the curd is regulated dur- 
ing this cutting and piling process. If the curd 
is too wet, it is turned and piled frequently. If it 
is too acid and dry it is allowed to lie longer and 
not turned so often. When some acid is developed, 
so that the curd takes on a glistening appearance 
and begins to grow slightly fibrous, it is finely 
ground in a peg mill, salted and put in the hoops 
with strainer cloth about it but not under pressure. 
At night it is turned and returned to the hoops. 
The next morning it is again turned and then put 
in the press with very slight pressure. Each suc- 
ceeding day the turning is continued and the pres- 
sure slightly increased until it has been pressed for 
five days in all. It is then taken from the press 
and allowed to stand one day in the hoops with- 
out pressure, after which it is taken out and a 
bandage pasted on with flour paste. It is allowed 
to stand three days in the press-room, and then 
put in the curing -room at a temperature not above 
65°, and cured for three or four weeks. The 
cheese should all be of the same height, and to 
bring this about hoops of varying diameter are used 
so that the variation in milk from day to day will 
make no difference in the height of the cheese. If 
a cheese is too high after the first or second day 



288 Milk and Its Products 

in the press it is put in a hoop of larger diameter 
and vice versa When the cheese is put in the cur- 
ing-room, the growth of a white mold on the ends is 
encouraged by laying on the upper end of the cheese 
a plate or round piece of slate. The cheeses are 
kept on straw in the curing -room, and when ready 
for market the ends of the cheese, except where the 
plate has lain, are cleaned and polished, and the 
marks of the straw show in the white mold in the 
center. Cheshire cheese is usually colored. When 
of good quality it is of a soft and somewhat gran- 
ular texture, dissolving readily on the tongue, and 
with a pronounced and rather sharp cheese flavor. 

Lancashire. — Lancashire cheese is very similar to 
Cheshire, though it is made somewhat softer and the 
flavor is more pronounced. No heat is used to aid 
in the separation of the whey, and ordinarily, when 
ready for the press, the curd is divided into two 
portions, one of which is mixed with the curd 
retained from the preceding day and pressed, and 
the other kept to be mixed with the curd made on 
the following day. 

Derbyshire and Leicestershire. — These cheeses are 
made by modifications of the Cheddar process. They 
are intended to produce a somewhat softer cheese to 
ripen in a shorter time. Both are pressed in flat 
shapes, not over six inches in height and about six- 
teen inches in diameter. The Derbyshire is white, 
the Leicestershire highly colored. Both should be 
covered with dark mold when ready for the market. 
They bear the same relation to English Cheddar 



Wensleydale and Qorgonzola 289 

cheese that the soft varieties of of home -trade cheese 
do to American export Cheddars. 

Wensleydale. — Wensleydale cheese is made in cer- 
tain districts in Yorkshire, England. It occupies an 
intermediate position between the Stilton on the one 
hand and the ordinary hard cheese on the other. In 
texture and flavor, and in the characteristic veins 
of blue mold it quite closely resembles the Stilton, 
but it is made after a process somewhat resembling 
the ordinary Derby or Leicestershire or American 
home -trade processes, and is pressed in a bandage 
in an ordinary press. It is cured at a temperature 
of about 60° F., care being taken that the growth of 
the mold is facilitated even to the extent of burrow- 
ing the cheese with skewers if the mold does not 
grow with sufficient rapidity. 

Qorgonzola.— (jfovgonzol^i is an Italian blue-molded 
cheese closely resembling Stilton in texture, though 
it is usually of inferior flavor. Considerable quan- 
tities of Gorgonzola are imported into this country, 
but their quality is not at all uniform and the pro- 
cess of manufacture, resembling that given for Stil- 
ton in the main, is not systematically carried out 
by the peasants in the north of Italy, where it is 
made. 

Emmenthaler, Gruyere, Swiss or Schweitzer. — The 
cheese made in the mountains of Switzerland has a 
history reaching back to the seventeenth century,* 
and many of the old customs are still used ; but, as 



*Moiirad, Cheese making in Switzerland. Winnetka, HI., 1896. 
S 



290 . Milk and Its Products 

might be expected, the various localities have devel- 
oped many varieties of this general type, in the same 
way that the different forms of cheddar and allied 
cheese have come to differ from one another. It is 
generally considered that the cheese known as Em- 
menthaler is typical of the whole group of Swiss 
cheeses. The Emmenthaler cheese is made in a 
large copper kettle instead of a vat, and ordinarily the 
curd made in one vessel is pressed as a single 
cheese. After the curd has been coagulated with ren- 
net, it is broken up in various ways into small pieces 
as nearly uniform in size as possible, and then heated, 
with careful stirring and attention, up to 135° or 
140° F. After heating, the curd is allowed to sink 
to the bottom of the vessel in a solid mass, and 
while in this condition the bandage is slipped around 
it and the whole mass of curd conveyed to the 
hoops, where it is pressed. In the subsequent curing 
the curd is usually salted from the outside of the 
cheese as it is curing, and during the curing pro- 
cess certain fermentations go on which produce large 
holes in the cheese. These holes in perfect cheese 
should be uniform in size and at equal distances from 
one another. The casein itself breaks down into a 
cheese of solid, uniform texture and characteristic fla- 
vor. It has been asserted that the characteristic fla- 
vors of the Swiss cheese are due to the character of 
the Alpine pastures upon which the cows feed, but it 
is altogether likely that the curing fermentations have 
as much or more to do with developing these flavors, 
Edam. — The round Dutch cheeses, colored red, 



Edam 291 

that are common in all markets take their name 
from Edam, a small town in North Holland, though 
the cheeses made in the whole of North Holland are 
practically of this variety. The cheeses are made 
almost wholly in private dairies, though there are a 
few factories in which the milk of several farmers is 
pooled together. The cheeses are made from partly 
skimmed milk ; ordinarily the milk of the evening 
is put at once into the cheese making tub, and in 
the morning the cream that has risen is removed 
from it for making butter. The fresh morning's 
milk is added and the whole set immediately at a 
temperature of 85° F., with enough rennet to coagu- 
late it in about 40 minutes somewhat softer than for 
ordinary cheese making. When the coagulation is 
sufficiently advanced the curd is broken with a wire 
curd breaker, the bars of which are about three- 
fourths of an inch apart. The breaking is done at 
first gently into large pieces and afterward more 
vigorously, a constant agitation being kept up by the 
breaker which results in breaking the curd into finer 
and finer pieces. After the whey begins to separate 
a portion is drawn off and heated upon a stove, the 
agitation meanwhile of the curd and the remaining 
whey being constantly kept up. When the whey is 
sufficiently warm so that when added to the whole 
mass it will bring the contents of the tub up to 85° F., 
the heated whey is added and the stirring with the 
breaker kept up for a full hour, at the end of which 
time the particles of curd should be about the size of 
kernels of wheat, and firm and hard, but still entirely 



292 



Milk and Its Products 



sweet. The curd is then allowed to settle on the 
bottom of the tub. When it is sufficiently matted so 
that it will hang together it is carefully turned over 
and doubled up at one side of the tub, which is 
slightly elevated for the purpose. The whey is then 
dipped off and the curd made as firm as possible in 
the tub by pressure with a piece of board and an iron 
weight. When all the whey has been removed that 
will run off readily, the curd is broken up with the 

hands and packed in the 
molds shown in Fig. 51. 
It is made as firm as 

possible in the mold by 

pressure with the hand 




Fig. 51. Mold for Edam cheese. 



until it will maintain its 
shape. It is then removed 
from the mold, neatly 
wrapped in cotton cloths 
and replaced. The covers 
are put on and the molds put in the press for three 
hours. When removed from the press the cheese 
should be round or nearly round in shape. They are 
put on cup -shaped supports and salted by thoroughly 
rubbing the outside with salt. They are then set 
aside, covered with salt, turned and rubbed frequently 
for three or four days. (Sometimes the salt is added 
by immersion in saturated brine.) They are kept in 
the salt as long as any whey is drawn out and are 
then put on shelves in the curing -rooms still in the 
cup -shaped support to help maintain their form. The 
curing -rooms are kept at ordinary temperatures. In 



Edam 



293 



many places they are the cow stables that are vacant 
for the summer. The temperature will seldom rise 
higher than 65° F. After about three or four weeks 
they became hard and firm and covered with a white 
mold. They are then taken down, thoroughly washed 




Fig. 52. The Market Square, Alkmaar, Holland. From a photograph 
by the author, May 21, 1897. 

in whey, all the mold scrubbed off, dried and greased 
with linseed oil, when they are ready for the market. 
The merchants purchase them in large numbers at the 
weekly markets in the different villages. A typical 
market scene is shown in the cut (Fig. 52). When 
taken to the warehouses they are colored red, wrapped 
in tin foil and packed for transportation. The curing 



294 Milk and Its Products 

process is not completed at the time the cheese is 
marketed. An Edam cheese at three or four weeks 
old is of a tough, elastic texture and scarce any 
flavor. Six or eight months or more are required to 
break down the casein and develop the flavor as it is 
found in the perfect Edam cheese, and this ordinarily 
takes place while the cheeses are in the warehouse or 
in course of exportation. 

Gouda. — Gouda cheeses are made in South Holland 
by a process very similar to the manufacture of 
Edam. The whey is not so completely separated, 
and the resulting cheese is therefore softer. It is 
pressed in molds of a flat, oval shape and about 
ten or twelve pounds weight, and is cured faster 
than Edam, so that at six weeks to two months 
old it is a cheese similar in flavor and texture to 
a well made Cheddar, although somewhat drier. 

Boquefort. — This is a soft or semi -soft cheese, 
made in France. In some respects it is the most fa- 
mous of all varieties of cheese. It is sometimes made 
from goats' as well as cows' milk, and it has peculiar 
characteristics imparted by specific fermentations that 
are brought about in the curing process. The curing 
is done in caves in limestone rock, where the air is 
uniform in temperature, and in order to bring about 
the desired fermentations the germs are added to the 
curd in the process of manufacture. These germs 
are often cultivated upon bread or similar substance, 
and this, crumbled up, is mingled with the curd 
in order to insure the proper fermentation in the 
cheese. Roquefort cheese, when well made and 



Brie and Camembert 295 

cured, is of a rather soft texture, and the whole 
mass is permeated with the molds, imparting a 
characteristic flavor to the cheese. 

Brie. — Another soft French cheese. The milk is 
put into small, circular vessels and the rennet added. 
The curd is allowed to remain until it has become 
sufficiently firm to be removed from the whey in one 
piece. It is then carefully taken up and put in 
such a position that the whey may drain from it. 
It is turned frequently and carefully until sufficient 
whey has drained away so that the cheeses will 
maintain their form. They are then lightly salted 
and put SLway to cure. During the curing process 
molds develop on the outside, but the fermenta- 
tions that go on upon the inside of the cheese 
result in the breaking down of the casein into a 
creamy mass of a strong, piquant flavor. The molds 
upon the outside give to the cheese a strong odor 
of decomposition. 

In very many cases. Brie cneese is put upon the 
market in a very much more immature form, so that 
it has a firm, though somewhat soft texture. If 
allowed to become fully ripe, though, it breaks down 
into a semi -liquid mass similar to Camembert. 

Camembert. — Camembert cheese is a soft cheese 
of French manufacture 3 to 4 inches in diameter 
and X to % inches thick. When fully ripe, the 
cheese is coated with a heavy growth of red or 
reddish brown mold, and the interior breaks down 
into a soft, plastic semi-liquid mass, of pungent odor 
and piquant flavor. In the manufacture of Camem- 



296 



Milk and Its Products 



bert cheese the rennet is added at a rather low tem- 
perature and in small quantity, so that eight to ten 
hours are required before the curd is firm enough 
for the further treatment. In some cases a culture 
of the mold from an old cheese is added to the milk 
before the rennet, in order to facilitate the growth 
of the mold during the ripening process. When the 
milk is coagulated into rather a firm curd, 
the curd and whey is ladled into the mold 
shown in the cut, Fig. 53, which is placed 
upon a straw mat arranged on a table so 
that the whey may drain off. In 
ladling the curd into the mold 
care is taken that each ladleful 
is deposited with as little break- 
age of the curd as possible, and 
particularly that the 
mold, when full, is 
covered at the top 
with but a single slice 
of the curd. The curds 
are allowed to remain 
in the molds until enough whey has escaped so that 
the cheeses may be turned without breaking the curd. 
They are then carefully turned and put upon fresh 
mats, at intervals of twelve hours, when in the 
course of three or four daj^s the cheese will be 
sufficiently firm so that the molds may be removed. 
After the molds are removed, turning is continued 
until the mold begins to appear on the surface. 
The cheeses are then put in a damp curing -room, at a 




Fig. 58 Ladle and mold for Camembert 



B^Isigny and Pont VEveque 



297 



low temperature — 55° to 60° — for the remainder of the 
ripening process, which requires from four to six weeks. 

B'' Isigny .— Wl^igny cheese is similar to Camem- 
bert and Brie, and intermediate in size between 
them ; in fact, D'Isigny so closely resembles Brie 
that they are often indistinguishable, and, as a 
matter of fact, D'Isigny is little more than a trade 
name for a smaller form of Brie. 

Pont L^Eveque. — Pont L'Eveque is a soft French 
cheese of rather firmer consistency than Camembert. 
The milk is set at the usual temperature, and when 
the curd is firm enough to handle, it is gently cut 
into rather large cubes, which are carefully placed 
upon a straw mat. As the whey begins to separate 
and run off and the curd becomes firmer, the ends of 
the mat are brought together in such a way that a 
slight pressure is brought upon the curd. This is 
continued until the curd is firm enough so that it 
can be placed in tin molds like 
that shown in the cut. Fig. 54. 
The molds are filled and placed 
upon a straw mat. The molds 
are turned once or twice a day 
until the cheese is firm enough 
so that the mold may be re- 
moved. Mold begins to appear 
upon the cheese, which is kept 
at a temperature a little above 
60°. When the cheeses are well 
removed to a damp room of a 




Fig. 54. Mold for 
Pont L'Eveque cheese. 



55° to 58°. When the curing 



molded they are 
temperature from 
process is com- 



298 



Milk and Its Products 



plete, the cheeses are of a soft consistency similar to 
that of an unripe Brie, but with a characteristic, well 
ripened flavor fully developed. 

Fort du Salut is one of the firmest French 
cheeses, and when well made is of a texture similar 
to the best type of American home -trade cheese, 
with a pleasant, nutty flavor. The milk is set at 
a rather high temperature and enough rennet added 
to bring firm coagulation in thirty minutes. The 
curd is then cut and heated to 104° and allowed 

to remain in the whey 
until it takes on a pe- 
culiar rubber -like con- 
sistency. It is then put 
in the hoop shown in 
the cut, Fig. 55, which 
is lined with a strainer 
cloth and subjected to 
slight pressure. When taken from the press it is 
slowly ripened at a low temperature. 

Parmesan. — A very hard Italian cheese made 
from milk with very little fat, and from which a 
large part of the water has been expelled. In curing 
it takes on a rather sharp flavor, and naturally it 
can be kept in almost any climate for almost any 
length of time. It is so hard that it is ordinarily 
grated before being used, and is almost wholly 
used to add piquancy to soups, sauces, and the 
like. 




Fig. 55. Hoop for Port du Salut cheese. 



CHAPTER XVI 
ICE CBEAM 

Relation to dairy practice. — The nutritive value of 
ice cream, together with its extreme palatableness, 
makes it one of the leading foods of today. Thus 
the immense demand has forced it, in a large measure, 
from the realm of the housewife to the commercial 
channels of trade. As it is, strictly speaking, a prod- 
uct of milk, the business of making it has fallen in 
many cases upon the dairyman. The indications for 
the future seem to demand a knowledge of the prin- 
ciples and practice underlying the manufacture of ice 
cream for every one interested in dairy products. 
Although some believe ice cream to be a direct de- 
scendant of the sherbet of the Orient, and hence of 
ancient origin, its development has been rather slow 
until recently. Catharine de Medici is said to have 
had frozen ices about the middle of the sixteenth 
century. Charles IT was served with frozen milk at a 
banquet in the seventeenth century. In the eighteenth 
century, ice cream was made to some extent in Eng- 
land, Germany, France and the United States. The 
first advertisement of ice cream appeared in a New 
York newspaper called "The Post Boy," June 8, 1786, 
and read as follows: "Ladies and Gentlemen may be 

(299) 



300 



Milk and Its Products 



supplied with lee Cream every day at the City Tavern, 
by their humble servant, Joseph Crowe." 

The wholesale ice cream business was originated in 
the nineteenth century by Jacob Fussel, but it reached 
its maximum development in the twentieth century. 
The word "ice cream," which corresponds to the Euro- 
pean word "ices," is rather a generic term, and may 
be used to apply to any one of a large class of frozen 
delicacies. 

Classification. — Ice creams in America are divided 
into two large classes. 

I. Philadelphia, or plain cream, which consists of 
pure cream, sugar and flavoring matter. 

II. Neapolitan, which has, in addition to the cream 
and sugar, beaten eggs, making it, in reality, a frozen 
custard. 

Janet McKenzie Hill makes the following classi- 
fication : 

{Philadelphia. 
Neapolitan. 
^Parfait. 



^Frozen with stirring 



Ices^ 



Cream ices 



Water ices ' 



■Frozen without stirring 

Sherbet. 
Granite. 
Frappe. 
Punch. 



Biscuit, 
w Mousse. 



Classification of Ice Cream 301 

Another classification made by Mortensen* is as 
follows : 

I. Plain ice creams. IX. Lactos. 

II. Nut ice creams. X. Ices. 

III. Fruit ice creams. 1. Sherbets. 

IV. Bisque ice creams. 2. Milk sherbets. 
V. Parfaits. 3. Frappes. 

VI. Mousses. 4. Punches. 

VII. Puddings. 5. Souffles. 

VIII. Aufaits. 

The definitions and descriptions of the above classi- 
fication are given as follows by Mortensen: 

Plain ice cream is a frozen product made from 
cream and sugar, with or without a natural flavoring. 

Nut ice cream is a frozen product made from 
cream and sugar and non- rancid nuts. 

Fruit ice cream is a frozen product made from 
cream, sugar, and sound, clean, mature fruits. 

Bisque ice cream is a frozen product made from 
cream, sugar, and bread products, marshmallows or 
other confections, with or without natural flavoring. 

Parfait is a frozen product made from cream, 
sugar and Qgg yolks, with or without nuts or fruits 
and other natural flavoring. 

Mousse is a frozen whipped cream to which sugar 
and natural flavoring have been added. 

Pudding is a product from cream or milk, with 
sugar, eggs, nuts and fruits, highly flavored. 

Aufait is a brick cream, consisting of layers of one or 
more kinds of cream, with solid layers of frozen fruits. 

*Iowa State College, Bulletin 123, page 357. 



302 Milk and Its Products 

Lacto is a product manufactured from skimmed or 
whole sour milk, eggs and sugar, with or without 
natural flavoring. 

Ices are frozen products made from water, or sweet 
skimmed or whole milk, and sugar, with or without 
eggs, fruit juices, or other natural flavoring. 

A sherbert is an ice made from water, sugar, egg- 
albumen, and natural flavoring, and frozen to the 
consistency of ice cream. 

Milk sherbert is an ice made from sweet skimmed 
or whole milk, with egg -albumen, sugar, and natural 
flavoring, frozen to the consistency of ice cream. 

Frappe is an ice consisting of water, sugar, and 
natural flavoring, and frozen to a soft, semi -frozen 
consistency. 

Punch is a sherbet flavored with liquors, or highly 
flavored with fruit juices and spice. 

Soufile is an ice made from water, eggs, sugar and 
flavoring material. It differs from sherbets mainly in 
that it contains the whole q^^. 

As a product can be no better than the materials 
which enter into its composition, it behooves the ice 
cream maker to use care and discretion in the selec- 
tion of ingredients. 

Quality of cream. — Cream being the main constitu- 
ent, its quality has a marked effect upon the finished 
product. The fat content of the cream influences the 
flavor in proportion to the percentage. This is recog- 
nized as such an important factor that the federal and 
some state governments are requiring that all ice cream 
offered for sale contain a certain percentage of fat. 



Quality of Cream 303 

It is a self-evident fact that the flavor of the raw 
cream is one of the most important factors in ice 
cream making. It should be free from all "cowy" or 
weedy flavors, and from all old, rancid, or metallic 
flavors, which indicate unclean dairying. Although 
the ice cream maker is not always directly responsible 
for the cream before it reaches him, he is responsible 
for the marketable product; so a close supervision of 
the entire production of the cream is worth while. 
Granted that the cream is clean and sweet, it is 
known that the viscosity increases with age, particu- 
larly if the cream is held at a low temperature. This 
viscosity permits an increase in yield because of a 
greater swell in freezing, while the extreme cold 
apparently hardens the fat and gives to the frozen 
product a better body. 

Whether cream should be heated or pasteurized de- 
pends on the individual. The various chefs and con- 
noisseurs differ. Professor Mortensen recommends 
pasteurization of cream at 140° to 145°, and holding 
it in a retarder for thirty minutes; then cooling it 
rapidly and holding it at a temperature near freezing 
for about forty -eight hours. Some people dislike ice 
cream made from uncooked cream, claiming that it 
has a raw flavor and less body. 

The use of homogenized milk or cream, that is, one 
which has been made homogeneous throughout by sub- 
jecting it, in an apparatus adapted for that purpose, 
to a pressure of from 3,000 to 5,000 pounds per 
square inch, is said to enable the ice cream maker to 
use a cream containing from 16 to 17 per cent fat, 



304 Milk and Its Products 

in which the resulting product will have a body and 
texture equal to that resulting from the use of a 20 
to 25 per cent cream. 

Sugar. — The kind and amount of sugar is left 
usually to the taste of the maker or the demand of 
the trade. Ordinarily granulated sugar is used, 
though some prefer XXXX or some of the finer grades. 
Other manufacturers believe that brown sugar gives a 
delicate flavor which is desirable. 

Whether the sugar should be added in the form of 
syrup is another question which is open. Experience 
has shown that where syrup is used the resulting prod- 
uct is perhaps of finer grain or body, but that the 
time for freezing is longer, and it is also a little more 
difficult to keep the cream frozen and in good condi- 
tion. Not all makers may find that this is so. 

Flavors. — The flavoring matter may be obtained in 
various ways; the many kinds of vanilla extract, both 
natural and synthetic, on the market give the manu- 
facturer a wide range for choice. Some believe that 
the best results are obtained by extracting the vanilla 
from the beans themselves with alcohol. The other 
flavors, such as caramel, chocolate, maple, and the va- 
rious fruits, may be procured already prepared from 
some commercial concern, or perhaps as good, if not 
better qualitj^ may be made by the maker himself. 
Vanilla has that peculiar quality which enables it to 
combine with other flavors in such a way that the 
result is particularly pleasing. Thus, in caramel and 
chocolate creams, some vanilla is usually used. Most 
recipes advise the addition of the fruits when the 



Ice Cream Fillers 305 

cream is partially frozen and not at the beginning of 
the process. 

Fillers. — As before stated, in the Neapolitan or 
French types of cream eggs are used; the increase in 
body or smoothness being very slight, the value of the 
eggs is more nutritive than otherwise. All kinds of 
starches are used to give more substance to a cream 
with a low percentage of fat. Rennet in various forms 
is used for the same purpose. Gelatin has been used 
in commercial creams for some time. It not only adds 
body but, if carefully used, prevents the crystallizing of 
moisture upon standing, and keeps the cream smooth. 
Gum tragacanth, a vegetable gum, is used for the same 
purpose as gelatin; its tenacity is so great that only 
a very small amount is needed, and for this and other 
reasons it is gaining favor. Whether or not these 
fillers or binders should be used is questionable. Suf- 
fice it to say that they are, strictly speaking, adultera- 
tions, and so, from the standpoint of purity in food 
products, should be discountenanced. 

Freezing and x^aching. — Authorities differ on the 
amount and kind of salt that should be added to the 
ice in freezing. In most cook-books coarse salt in the 
proportion of one of salt to three of ice is recom- 
mended, but some recent experiments* show that, if 
the ice is very fine, the proportion may be 1: 12 or 
even 1 : 20. It is important that the greater propor- 
tion of salt be placed midway or on top, as salt at the 
bottom of the freezer is largely wasted. 

*Vermoiit Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 155. 
T 



306 MilJc and Its Products 

The finer the salt, the more rapidly it dissolves and 
the more quickly cold is produced, thus hastening the 
freezing process. However, it is believed by many 
that it is better that the cream should be cooled slowly 
at first, at least until after it reaches the Tvhipping 
point. The addition of water to the salt and ice, thus 
making a brine, will increase the freezing to a consid- 
erable extent. The freezer should also be turned slowly 
at first, for rapid agitation before passing below the 
churning point causes small lumps of butter to form. 
After this point, the cream should be beaten or whipped 
by rapid revolution of the dasher. If the speed is 
slow throughout, there will be little swell and a coarser 
texture. The entire process should take from fifteen 
to twenty -five minutes, depending upon the tempera- 
ture of the cream in the beginning; the cooler the 
cream, the less time will be required. 

Transferring and packing. — If only a single batch 
is made, it is most common to clean off the dasher and 
repack the ice around the freezer. However, if it is 
necessary to transfer the cream to another receptacle, 
it should be done while fresh and in a rather soft con- 
dition. If allowed to harden, and then re -dished, 
there will be a considerable loss of volume. In pack- 
ing or repacking, a coarser grade of salt may be used, 
as the amount of cold needed is only sufficient to 
maintain the frozen condition. 

Freezers. — The essential parts of an ice cream 
freezer are, first, the vessel in which the cream or 
other material to be frozen is contained. This is fitted 
with an agitator, with which to stir the cream during 



Types of Freezers 307 

the process, and which, in turn, is set in a larger con- 
tainer, which holds the ice or other refrigerating 
material. 

Ice cream freezers of several types or classes are 
now in general use, the chief distinction being as to 
whether the cream is frozen in successive batches, or 
continuously, or whether brine or melting ice is used 
as the refrigerant. The various types may be classi- 
fied as follows: Vertical batch ice, vertical batch brine, 
horizontal batch brine, and horizontal continuous brine. 

The first type is the one in common use, and for 
small quantities is practically the only type used. 
They are furnished in any size up to 10 gallons, and 
may be run by either hand or power. A 10 -gallon 
freezer will require for the first batch from 10 to 20 
pounds of ice and from 5 to 6 pounds of salt. Suc- 
ceeding batches will require less ice because the 
machine has been cooled, and the freezing process is 
ready to begin almost from the start. 

When artificial refrigeration is available, the brine 
freezer has the advantage of better control of temper- 
atures, and does away with the inconvenience of hand- 
ling large amounts of ice. Brine freezers are arranged 
so that, instead of crushed ice surrounding the con- 
tainer, refrigerated brine is circulated around it. Batch 
machines of this sort may be placed either vertically or 
horizontally, and they are often so arranged that the 
finished ice cream may be drawn away from the bottom 
or side without removing or stopping the dash. 

The last type of horizontal freezer is the latest 
evolution of freezing machinery, and differs from the 



308 Milk and Its Products 

other types in that the cream flows in at one end of 
the machine and the finished ice cream out at the 
other, refrigeration being secured by moving disks 
through the center, through which the brine is circu- 
lated. This machine is open, and the process can be 
watched and temperatures taken as it progresses. 
These machines are quite often operated as "batch" 
machines; that is to say, the cream is allowed to flow 
in until the freezer is full, or nearly so, and the 
finished product drawn out, not continuously, but 
from time to time. 

Recipes. — With the wide variety of materials that 
are used in making the various kinds of ice cream, it 
is, of course, impossible to make anything like a, com- 
plete list of recipes. The following are given as 
typical of the various classes, and are intended to 
convey something of the proper proportions of cream, 
sugar and fiavoring materials. Vanilla ice cream may 
be taken as representative of the tj^pes of plain ice 
cream, and three standard formulae are given below. 

A.* This is, doubtless, the most common of ice 
creams. To make 10 gallons, one should use about 
50 pounds (6 gallons) of aged 18 per cent cream (or 
5% gallons of cream and % gallon of condensed milk), 
about one -sixth that quantity (8 pounds) of sugar, 3 
to 4 ounces of vanilla extract; and 3 to 4 ounces of 
gelatin, or 1 quart of "gumstock," if a binder seems 
called for. 

B. To make a single gallon of ice cream, one should 

*Vermoiit Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 155. 



Ice Cream Uecipes 309 

use 2 quarts of 22 per cent cream (4 pounds), seven- 
tenths pounds (11 ounces) of sugar, 1% tablespoon- 
fuls of vanilla extract. 

C* To make 10 gallons of finished ice cream, use 5 
gallons of 25 per cent cream, 8 pounds of sugar, and 
4 ounces of vanilla. 

There is little or nothing to be gained by the use 
of gelatin in ice cream made at home for immediate 
consumption. The sugar should be thoroughly dis- 
solved in the cream before the freezing process is 
started, although, in many conditions, the time and 
amount of agitation given before the cream freezes is 
sufficient to dissolve and to mix in the added sugar. 
Experience only can indicate the safety of this point 
to the maker. The flavoring may be added at any 
time before the mass starts to freeze. 

Vanilla ice cream is especially accommodating in 
that, though of itself it is one of the most popular 
flavors, its flavor is yet so delicate that it easily gives 
way to other and stronger ones, like coffee and choco- 
late; so that, if but a single quart or gallon of coffee 
ice cream is ordered, it is not an infrequent practice 
in the trade to mix a small quantity of the desired 
flavor with a sufficient quantity of vanilla ice cream, 
and thus to accommodate the consumer and relieve 
the dealer of certain embarassments. Or if, say, 
vanilla, coffee, and strawberry ice creams are desired, 
the stock for the entire three kinds is made up as one 
batch, then used first as vanilla, to the extent desired, 

*Towa State College, Bulletin No. 123, page 357. 



310 



Milk and Its Products 



then as coffee, and then as strawberry, one after the 
other, all from one and the same vanilla mix and with- 
out washing the machine, and usually to the entire 
satisfaction of all concerned. 

The following may be taken as representative formu- 
lae for the various kinds of ice cream, according to 
Mortensen ' s classification : 



Chocolate Ice Cream— 
5 gallons cream. 
10 pounds sugar. 
1| pounds bitter chocolate. 

4 ounces vanilla extract. 

Maple Ice Cream — 

5 gallons 25 per cent cream. 

6 pounds cane sugar. 
2 pounds maple sugar. 
2 ounces caramel. 

4 ounces vanilla extract. 

Caramel Ice Cream — 

5 gallons 25 per cent cream, 
8 pounds sugar. 

12 ounces caramel. 
4 ounces vanilla extract. 

Coffee Ice Cream— 

5 gallons 25 per cent cream. 
8 pounds cane sugar. 

Extract from 1 pound coffee. 

Mint Ice Cream — 

5 gallons 25 per cent cream. 

8 pounds cane sugar. 

1 pint concentrated Creme de 

Menthe syrup. 

Few drops green coloring. 

Walnut Ice Cream — 

5 gallons 25 per cent cream. 
8 pounds cane sugar. 



4 ounces vanilla extract. 

4 pounds walnut meats. 

Strawberry Ice Cream — 

5 gallons 25 per cent cream. 
8 pounds sugar. 

1 quart crushed strawberries. 

Lemon Ice Cream — 

5 gallons 25 per cent cream. 
10 pounds sugar. 
2 pints lemon juice. 

1 pint orange juice. 

Orange Ice Cream — 

5 gallons 25 per cent cream. 
10 pounds sugar. 

2 quarts orange juice. 
^ pint lemon juice. 

Macaroon Ice Cream — 

5 gallons 25 per cent cream. 
8 pounds sugar. 

4 ounces vanilla extract. 

5 pounds ground macaroons. 

Walnut Parfait — 

4 gallons 30 per cent cream. 

Yolks of 10 dozen eggs. 
14 pounds sugar. 
4 ounces vanilla extract. 
4 pounds ground walnut 
meats. 



other Recipes 



311 



By substituting for the vanilla extract and nut 
meats, the same proportion of fruits as are used for 
fruit ice cream, fruit parfaits, such as strawberry, 
raspberry and cherry parfaits, and others, may be 
prepared. 



Coffee Parfait — 

4 gallons 30 per cent cream. 

Yolks of 10 dozen eggs. 
14 pounds sugar. 

Extract from 1 pound cof- 
fee. 

Tutti Frutti— 

4 gallons 30 per cent cream. 

Yolks of 10 dozen eggs. 
14 pounds cane sugar. 
4 ounces vanilla extract. 
3 pounds candied cherries. 
3 pounds candied assorted 
fruit. 

Cranberry Mousse — 
2 gallons 30 per cent cream. 
4 pounds cane sugar. 
1 quart cranberry juice. 
I pint lemon juice. 

Nesselrode Pudding — 

3 gallons 30 per cent cream. 
10 dozen eggs. 

10 pounds cane sugar. 

4 ounces vanilla extract. 



6 poimds candied cherries 

and assorted fruits. 
4 pounds raisins. 
4 pounds walnut meats. 
4 pounds filbert meats. 

Lemon Sherbet — 
6 gallons water. 

"Whites of 2 dozen eggs. 
24 pounds sugar. 
6 pints lemon juice. 
If pints orange juice. 

Pineapple Milk Sherbet — 
6 gallons milk. 
20 pounds sugar. 

Whites of 2 dozen eggs. 
1 gallon pineapple pulp. 
1 quart lemon juice. 

Pineapple Souffle — 
1| gallons water. 
4 dozen eggs. 
12 pounds sugar. 
1 gallon grated pineapple. 
1 quart lemon juice. 



Scoring. — The quality of ice cream may be judged 
by a score card in the same way that other dairy prod- 
ucts are scored. A score card proposed by the Iowa 
Experiment Station is as follows: 



312 Milk and Its Products 

1. Flavor 45 

2. Texture 25 

3. Richness 15 

4. Appearance 10 

5. Color 5 

Total 100 

The points in the score card may be described, 
explained, and criticised as follows: 

I. Flavor. — The flavor, to be perfect, must be clean 
and creamy, and combined with flavoring material in 
such a way as to blend with the cream in a full and 
delicious flavor. Defects in flavor are various, and are 
usually due to some one or more of the following 
causes or conditions: 

(1) Defects due to the use of flavoring materials 
which will not blend with the other ingredients. 

(2) Defects due to cream used: 

Sour cream flavor. ^ - 

Old cream flavor. 

Bitter cream flavor. 

Metallic cream flavor. 

Oily cream flavor. 

Weedy cream flavor. 

Barn flavor 

Unclean flavor. 

Burned, overheated or scorched flavor. 

(3) Defects in flavor due to flller used: 

Condensed milk flavor. 
Starch flavor. 
Gum flavor. 
Gelatine flavor. 



Points in Scoring 313 

(4) Defects in flavor dtie to other ingredients: 

Too sweet. 

Lack of sweetness. 

Coarse flavor due to flavoring material. 

Stale fruit flavor. 

Rancid nut flavor. 

Mouldy nut flavor. 

II. Texture. — Cream of perfect texture must be 
firmly frozen and be smooth and velvety. The more 
common defects in texture may be described as: 

Icy. — Due to the presence of lumps of ice in the 
cream. It is most noticeable toward the bottom of the 
container, and may be due to improper packing or to 
holding too long ice cream which was manufactured 
without filler. 

Coarse. — This defect may be due to the use of too 
thin cream, or to packing while too soft. 

Sticky. — Due to too large use of such fillers as 
gelatine, sweetened condensed milk, glucose, etc. 

Buttery. — This defect is due to the use of cream 
which has been partially churned before freezing, or 
to cream which enters the freezer at too high a tem- 
perature, in which case it is churned or partially 
churned while freezing. It may also be due to oper- 
ating the freezer at a too high speed, or to some defect 
in the construction of the freezer. 

Too soft. — Due to improper packing after freezing. 

When judging ice cream containing nuts, fruits, or 
other solid material, due allowance should be made 
for the presence of such ingredients. 

III. Richness. — Ice cream containing the amount 



314 Milk and Its Products 

of butter -fat required by the state pure food law should 
be considered perfect in richness. The richness is 
determined by making chemical analysis for fat. 

IV. Appearance. — Ice cream scoring perfect in 
appearance should be clean, and neatly put up, and in 
a clean container. 

Defects. — Cream of unclean appearance; lack of 
parchment circle over ice cream; dirty container: rusty 
container; dirty ice cream tub; old string tags at- 
tached to handle of tub. 

When judging brick ice creams, special attention 
should be given to the uniformity of the layers, to 
the neat folding of the parchment wrapper, and to 
cleanliness and general appearance of the package, 

V. Color. — Ice cream of perfect color is such as 
contains only the natural color imparted to it by the 
flavoring material used; or, if color is added, it should 
harmonize with the particular flavoring used. 

Defects in Color. — Too high color; unnatural color, 
such as colors different from the color of the natural 
flavoring material used. 

Individual molds, if colored, should be as nearly as 
possible the same color as the object they represent. 



CHAPTER XVn 

OTHER AND BY-PRODUCTS OF THE DAIRY 

The by-products of the dairy are skimmed milk, 
buttermilk and whey, and a variety of products 
that may be manufactured from them. The utiliza- 
tion of these by-products to the best advantage is 
an important part of the economy of dairy manu- 
facture. 

Skimmed milk, buttermilk and whey. — By far the 
larger part of the dairy by-products must of neces- 
sity be utilized as food for animals, either because 
of the cost of transportation or for lack of facility 
in marketing many of the rather perishable products 
that can be made from them. All of these products 
make a valuable food for animals, of course in pro- 
portion to the amount of the normal constituents of 
the milk which they contain. Whey is less valuable 
than skimmed milk or buttermilk, because it has lost 
the greater part of its casein as well as fat, but 
it still is of sufficient value to render its utilization 
of importance. Naturally, we expect that young ani- 
mals (calves and pigs) will thrive the best upon 
these products, though skimmed milk has frequently 
been fed to cows with good results. All three are, 
however, so bulky that some more concentrated food 

(315) 



316 Milk and Its Products 

should be fed in connection with them, if they are 
used to the best advantage. When economically 
fed to young pigs and calves, skimmed milk and 
buttermilk may be made to return about fifteen cents 
per hundred weight, and whey about one-third less. 
These products are of value for food in proportion 
as the milk sugar has not been changed to lactic 
acid. They may be fed in unlimited quantities with- 
out ill results upon the health of the animal, ex- 
cept that occasionally when the milk is very sour, 
or when fermentations other than lactic have set 
in, derangements of the digestive organs, diarrhoea, 
etc., sometimes occur. It is, therefore, advisable that 
all of these products should be fed in as fresh a con- 
dition as possible, and it has been found in many 
instances that the custom of sterilizing or partially 
sterilizing the skimmed milk or whey at the factory, 
by injecting a jet of steam into it until the whole 
is heated up to about 180° F., is practical, and is fol- 
lowed by beneficial results. 

Condensed milJc. — In 1856 a patent was granted 
to Gail Borden, Jr., on a process for "concentrating 
sweet milk by evaporation in vacuo, having no sugar 
or other foreign matter mixed with it." From small 
beginnings the business has grown to enormous pro- 
portions, and is still largely in the hands of the 
descendants of the original patentee. 

There are two classes of condensed milk, namely, 
sweetened and unsweetened. 

Sweetened condensed milk. — Sweetened condensed 
milk was the first condensed milk to successfully reach 



Condensed Milk 



317 



the market iu hermetically sealed cans. It is made 
from cows' fresh milk. The milk is first heated to near 
the boiling point, then sucrose (cane sugar) is added to 
the extent of about 16 pounds of sugar to 100 pounds of 
fresh milk. The milk and sugar solution is condensed 




Fig. 56. 
Milk-condensing pan. 



in vacuo at a temperature of 130° F. to 150° F. The 
ratio of concentration is about 2% : 1 (2% parts of 
fresh milk are condensed to 1 part of condensed 
milk). The finished product contains about 40 per 
cent sucrose, it is of semi-liquid consistency and has 
a specific gravity of about 1.29. It is sold partly in 
hermetically sealed tin cans varying in capacity from 



318 Milk and Its Products 

8 to 20 ounces, and retailing at from 5 to 20 cents 
per can; and partly in barrels holding from 300 to 
600 pounds of condensed milk. The barrel goods are 
sold to bakeries and confectioners. They are generally 
made from partly or wholly skimmed milk. 

Sweetened condensed milk is not sterile, but is 
preserved by the sucrose it contains; it will keep for 
a considerable length of time, but is best when fresh. 

Unsweetened condensed milk. — There are three kinds 
of unsweetened condensed milk, namely, evaporated 
milk, plain condensed bulk milk, and concentrated milk. 

Evaporated milk. — In the manufacture of this prod- 
uct, cows^ fresh milk is heated to near the boiling 
point, then condensed in vacuo at 130° F. to 150° F. 
The ratio of concentration is about 2% : 1 (2% parts 
of fresh milk are condensed to 1 part of evaporated 
milk). The evaporated milk is then filled and sealed 
in tin cans varying in size from 8 ounces to 1 gallon. 
The hermetically sealed cans are sterilized at tempera- 
tures ranging from 226° F. to 240° F. for from 30 to 
60 minutes. From the sterilizer the cans are trans- 
ferred to the shaker, where they are subjected to vio- 
lent agitation, to completely break up the coagulum 
that may have formed during sterilization. The fin- 
ished product has the consistency of cream of medium 
richness, and has a specific gravity of about 1.065. It 
sells at from 5 to 50 cents per can. 

Evaporated milk is sterile, it keeps indefinitely, but 
is best when fresh. 

Plain condensed hulk milk. — This kind of condensed 
milk is made from whole milk, partly skimmed, or 



Concentrated Milk 319 

skimmed milk. The fresh milk is heated to about 
160° F. and condensed in vacuo at 130° F. to 150° F. 
The ratio of concentration is 3 to 4 : 1 (3 to 4 parts 
of fresh milk are condensed to one part of condensed 
milk). Before it leaves the vacuum pan, it is super- 
heated by live steam to swell or thicken it. It is sold 
in 10 -gallon milk cans. It has the consistency of 
very thick cream, and has a specific gravity of about 
1.09. This product is largely sold to ice cream manu- 
facturers, and limited quantities of it are retailed in 
milk bottles to the direct consumer. It sells at from 
25 to 75 cents per gallon. 

Plain condensed bulk milk is not sterile. Its keep- 
ing quality is similar to that of a good grade of pas- 
teurized milk. 

Concentrated milk. — Concentrated milk is made 
from fresh milk. Before condensing, the cream is 
removed, and the skim milk is condensed at 140° F. 
by blowing hot air through the milk. When the con- 
centration is completed, the cream is returned to the 
condensed product. The ratio of concentration is 
about 3 : 1 (about 3 parts of milk are condensed to 1 
part of concentrated milk) . This product is used for 
direct consumption. It differs from plain condensed 
bulk milk only in that it has not been exposed to so 
high temperatures during the process. 

Concentrated milk is not sterile. It keeps about 
as long as a good grade of pasteurized milk. Its 
manufacture is very limited. 

The chief essential in the successful manufacture 
of all condensed milks is a good quality of fresh milk. 



320 Milk and Its Products 

Milk that is abnormal in its properties when drawn, 
badly contaminated milk, and milk that has not been 
properly and promptly cooled on the farm cannot be 
safely used in the condensery. Such milk either does 
not withstand the trials of the process, or it succumbs 
to the many and unfavorable conditions to which it is 
subjected on its long journey from the factory to the 
pantry of the consumer. Its original defects magnify 
with age and follow it to its destination, resulting 
usually in heavy loss to the manufacturer. 

MilJc powders. — Several processes for completely 
removing the water from milk have been invented and 
are in more or less successful operation. The resulting 
product is in the form of a creamy white powder which 
upon agitation readily unites with water, thus restoring 
the milk. Skimmed milk thus treated is much used for 
the manufacture of custards and other bakers' products; 
but the powder from whole milk soon becomes rancid 
and is very little used. 

Dried casein, paper sizing. — The casein of milk 
in a dry form is useful in certain manufacturing 
processes, and has been found to be particularly val- 
uable for the preparation of sizing for paper, the 
preparation of paint and various other uses. The 
manufacture of dry casein for this purpose has 
come to be an important means of utilizing 
skimmed milk in many creameries, and its prepara- 
tion is comparatively simple. The skimmed milk is 
collected in a vat and the curd precipitated with a 
mineral acid. A mixture of acetic and sulphuric 
acids is commonly used, and from X to 1 per cent 



Milk Sugar 321 

is sufficient. When the curd has formed, which 
will be as soon as the acid is thoroughly mixed 
with the milk, the whey is drawn off and the 
curd washed two or three times with warm water. 
It is then taken out and pressed as dry as possible, 
after which it is ground rather fine in a peg mill 
and then dried in an oven till perfectly dry. The 
amount usually realized from the skimmed milk in 
this way is not more than may be realized when 
it is skilfully fed to animals. 

Milk sugar. — Milk contains between 4 and 5 per 
cent of milk sugar, and the manufacture of this sugar 
has come to be an important industry. In the manu- 
facture, whey is preferably used, or if skimmed milk 
the casein is first coagulated and removed. The 
water is then removed by evaporation until the crys- 
tfals of sugar are formed. Various methods are used 
to rid the sugar of albumin and other materials con- 
tained in the whey. Formerly this was a somewhat 
difficult operation, and added considerably to the ex- 
pense of the manufacture, but recently improvements 
have been made in this respect, so that the cost of 
the manufacture of the sugar is much lessened. The 
growth of the industry has been very rapid, result- 
ing in a much lower price for the product and a very 
much increased consumption. Formerly, almost the 
only use of milk sugar was medicinal. Now, be- 
cause of its digestibility, it foi-ms an important in- 
gredient of many of the so-called infants^ and inva- 
lids' foods. It is usually prepared in the form of a 
white crystalline powder, only mildly sweet to the 
taste. 

TJ 



322 Milk and Its Products 

Butch cheese (cottage cheese, schmierkase, pot cheese, 
etc.). — A toothsome and nutritious article of food is 
made from sour skimmed milk or huttermilk by al- 
lowing the casein to coagulate hy the action of lactic 
acid already formed, and then expelling the water by 
the aid of heat. A considerable number of products 
locally distinct, and differing in the degree of dryness 
of the casein, are made in this way, the general pro- 
cess of manufacture being to take sour buttermilk, or 
skimmed milk which has coagulated, heating gently to 
from 85° to 125° F., according to circumstances, drain- 
ing off the whey through a cloth strainer, and then 
reducing the texture of the resulting curd by knead- 
ing with the hands or a pestle ; salt is added ^ and 
the product is improved by the addition of a small 
amount of cream or butter, and occasionally by the 
use of some of the more common spices, as nutmeg, 
caraway, etc. It is commonly made only for domestic 
consumption, but in most cities and villages, es- 
pecially during the summer months, there is a con- 
siderable demand for fresh cheese of this sort, and 
its manufacture is often a source of revenue to fac- 
tories suitably located. It is usually sold and eaten 
in a fresh state, but it may be subjected • to cer- 
tain curing processes, which quite materially change 
its character, and which vary widely in different 
localities. 

Whey cheese {primost and myseost) . — These are pro- 
ducts manufactured from whey in some of the north 
European countries and among the Scandinavians in 
our own. They are really forms of evaporated whey 



Primost, Cheese Food 323 

and, according to Monrad,* are made somewhat as 
follows : The whey, not too sour, is boiled in a 
suitable vessel under a slow fire, care being taken 
that it is not scorched or burnt ; when the albumi- 
nous matters are coagulated they are removed to facil- 
itate evaporation, and the evaporation is carried on 
until the whole mass assumes a syrupy condition; 
the albuminous matters are then returned to the 
condensed whey, the whole is removed from the fire 
and mixed rapidly until in the form of a thick 
mush ; some cream is then added and the material 
pressed in brick shaped moulds, and after a day or 
two is ready for market. It is practically unknown 
except in those districts where the Scandinavian 
population is large. 

Cheese food. —Within the last few years an en- 
terprising cheese-maker, Mr. J. J. Angus, of Wiscon- 
sin, has perfected a system of manufacturing what 
he calls a complete cheese food. It is simply a pro- 
duct containing all the constituents of the milk in 
a condensed form. An ordinary cheddar cheese is 
first made and cured ; the whey is evaporated to a 
syrupy consistency, and the cheese from a corre- 
sponding amount of milk is ground down to a pasty 
consistency and mixed with the evaporated whey. 
The resulting mass is pressed into cakes of conve- 
nient size, and under ordinary conditions will keep 
a long time. The cheese food is a soft, homoge- 
neous substance of a mildly cheese -like, sweetish 
flavor. 

*A B C of Cheese-making. Winnetka. Ill, 1889. 



324 Milk and Its Products 

Koumiss is a beverage made from milk that has 
undergone alcoholic fermentation. It resembles but- 
termilk in taste, but has a frothy appearance and 
the casein of the milk is coagulated into a fine curd. 
It was originally made from mares' milk by various 
wandering tribes in Russia and Asia. It has been 
found to possess certain dietic properties, and is 
now prepared from cows' milk by various formulas. 
According to Fleischman, one of the best formu- 
las is as follows : 

One hundred pounds of separator skim milk is 
mixed with 42 pounds of water, 1.75 pounds of 
granulated sugar, .75 pounds of milk-sugar and 
5% to 6 ounces of good yeast, and is allowed- to 
stand for 32 hours at a temperature of 100° F. 
During this time the mixture is stirred about six 
times at equal intervals. It is then decanted into 
patent -stoppered bottles, the stoppers secured and 
the bottles put into a cellar at a temperature of 
55° F. It should be used within six days. 

Kephir is a similar beverage to Koumiss. In its 
preparation the fermentation is brought about by 
certain bodies, the so-called Kephir grains, of which 
very little is known. Kephir is but little known 
in this country. 

Wheyn. — Quite recently there has been patented 
in this country by Alexander Bernstein, of Berlin, 
Germany, a nourishing, mildly stimulating drink with 
the above name. It is, according to the specifications 
of the letters patent, a sour, sterilized whey, from 
which the albuminous matter and fat have been re- 



WTieyn 325 

moved. It is put up without further treatment, or it 
may be flavored with hops or other material, which 
may also be carbonated, or subjected to a mild alco- 
holic fermentation 



CHAPTER XVIII 
BUTTER AND CREESE FACTORIES 

Location of creameries. — In the location of a 
creamery no one thing is more important than to 
secure a well drained site, and yet this is in many 
cases evidently the last thing thought of. Cream- 
eries are located in any out of the way corner or 
bit of waste land that happens to be at hand. 
The drainage is no less an important matter to' be 
considered in selecting a creamery site than in se- 
lecting a house site. The foundation of cleanliness 
in a creamery begins with the sewer, and unless 
the waste materials can be completely and quickly 
drawn away the labor of keeping the whole prem- 
ises clean is very much enhanced. 

Other things being equal, then, elevated ground 
should be selected as a proper site for a creamery, 
and if the advantage of the elevation can be made 
use of in the arrangement of the working rooms, 
so much the better. Another matter that may prove 
of considerable value in many cases is a regard for 
the natural or artificial shelter that may be given the 
creamery building. A difference of six or eight de- 
grees in the work-room temperature may be easily 
secured by having a due regard to the advantages of 

(326) 



Arrangement of Creameries 



327 




shade from groves or the channels of natural air 
drainage. On the other hand, it is not well to lo- 
cate the building on a too bleak, or exposed site, and 
yet the great majority of creameries are either ex- 
posed to the 
full raj's of 
the August 
sun or to the 
bleak winds of 
winter. 

Arrang e- 
ment of hiiild- 
in g. — Two 
general princi- 
ples govern 
the arrange- 
ment of cream- 
ery buildings. In the one, the milk is taken in at such 
an elevation that it may flow by gravity from the 
weighing can to the receiving vat, thence to the tem- 
pering vat, thence to the separator, and finally to the 
skimmed milk and cream vats. In the other, the milk 
is taken in on a level with the work-room floor, and 
is elevated by pumps. Both plans have their advan- 
tages and disadvantages. The main advantage of 
what may be called the "gravity" system is, that 
the milk flows by its own weight during the whole 
course of manufacture, and no pumps, troublesome 
to keep clean, are necessary. As an oifset to this 
advantage, it entails a considerable amount of ex- 
tra labor in ascending and descending the neces- 



Fig. 57. Diagram of creamery arranged upon the 
"gravity" plan. 



328 



Milk and Its Products. 



sary stairs or 
the other hand, 




steps. The pumping system, on 
is economical of labor, but intro- 
duces one or 
more pumps, 
through which 
the milk must 
be passed, and 
which are al- 
ways, even 
when of the 
simplest pat- 
tern, more or 
less difficult to 
keep clean, 
and exceeding- 
ly liable to be 
neglected. In 
the outline diagrams is a creamery arranged ac- 
cording to either system. By reference to the ground 
plan (Fig. 59, page 329), it may be seen that in 
either case the amount of floor space required is the 
same. In Fig. 57 is shown the elevation under 
the "gravity" arrangement, with the exception that 
the skimmed milk vat is shown elevated. Here the 
milk is taken in at A, passes to B the receiving 
vat, thence to C the tempering vat, thence to D the 
separator, thence to E the cream vat, and through 
the pump H to F the skimmed milk vat. In the 
pumping system, Fig. 58, the same letters indicate 
corresponding parts. It will be seen here that the 
milk is pumped through G from B to C. Referring 



Fig. 58. Diagram of creamery arranged upon the 
' pumping" plan. 



Arrangement of Creameries 



329 



again, then, to the floor plan, if the arrangement be 
according to the pumping system, the operator, stand- 



T 



•\ I- 





—a 



[¥1 




I 

Fig. 5P Ground plan of creamery in Figs. 39 and 40. A, weighing can ; B, 
receiving vat ; C, tempering vat ; J), separator ; E, cream vat ; J, churn : 
K, butter worker ; L, cold storage room ; M, office ; N, boiler room ; O, fuel. 

ing near his scales and receiving vat A, is but a step 
from the separator D and the boiler N, and can easily 
give attention to all parts of his factory. Whereas, 
if the creamery is arranged upon the " gravity " 
plan, he must be constantly ascending and descend- 
ing a series of steps between A and D. It wou]d 
seem, therefore, that when the factory is to be a 



330 Milk and Its Products 

large one, requiring the services of more than one 
man, that the "gravity" system is preferable, be- 
cause of doing away with the objectionable pumps. 
Whereas, if the factory is to be a small one, and 
one man is to do all the work, the amount of 
labor saved by the more compact pumping system 
will more than overbalance the objection arising 
from pumps. In a factory of the size indicated, 
handling from three to five thousand pounds of 
milk per day, a floor space of about 18 x 24 feet 
will be required. In larger factories, it will be 
found of advantage, in controlling the temperature, 
to introduce partitions, so that the receiving and 
separating room may be separated from the churn- 
ing and working room, and if much butter is to 
be made up into prints, a third, colder room, for 
printing the butter, will be found of great advan- 
tage during the warm part of the year. Here, too, 
the question of labor again comes into play. When 
the creamery is so small that all the work is done 
by one man, labor is economized by having all the 
operations conducted in one room, but where two or 
three, or even more men are employed, it will be 
found of advantage to have separate rooms for the 
different operations. 

Construction. — The building should be laid upon 
solid foundation walls rather than upon piers. 
Besides adding decidedly to the appearance of the 
building, it aids materially in keeping the build- 
ing warm in winter and cool in summer. In regard 
to the floors, cement floors ai'e the most expensive 



Construction and Superstructure 331 

and the most durable, and if well laid and com- 
posed of the best materials, are entirely satisfactory. 
But wooden floors, tightly laid upon a well - drained 
foundation, are fairly durable, and when out of re- 
pair may be easily replaced at comparatively small 
cost. Whatever the floors, they must be thor- 
oughly sewered. The floor should slant rapidly 
to the gutter, so that all water will quickly run 
off through a thoroughly trapped iron pipe until the 
outside of the building is reached, after which 
well -glazed sewer pipe may be used. An abundant 
supply of pure water is indispensable. This, under 
ordinary conditions, will be obtained from a well. 
A bored or driven well is less liable to contami- 
nation than an open dug well, but in any event 
the site of the well should be chosen with due 
regard to possible sources of contamination. If 
the water is very abundant and at a temperature 
below 48°, a supply of ice is not indispensable, 
except for cold storage purposes, but it will be 
found in most cases to be of great advantage. 
In any event, the means of readily securing and 
maintaining in the cream a temperature of 50° F. 
or below is indispensable. Water and steam pipes 
should be carried to all parts of the building where 
their presence may be of advantage for cleaning 
purposes. 

The superstructure may be as elaborate or as 
simple as desired. At the least, it should offer as 
good protection from the elements as a well-built 
house does. In fact, the construction need not 



832 



Milk and Its Products 



differ from that of ordinary house construction, 
except that ceiling" on the inside take the place cf 
plaster. 

The inside finish should be of matched and 
planed lumber, thoroughly protected with hard oil. 



F 












"l V 




i 










B 




-D- 


■ 


. 


C 






te: 


B 


p 




, 






' \ 




















T 



Fig. 60. Plan of cheese factory properly arranged. 



It should be needless to say that the outside should 
be neatly and tastefully painted, yet well -painted 
creameries are the exception and not the rule. 

Cheese factories. — All that was said in regard to 
the location of creameries applies with equal force 
to cheese factories. Heretofore, perhaps, even less 
attention has been paid to the drainage of cheese 
factories than to creameries, but it is quite as neces- 
sarj\ The arrangement of the cheese factory is con- 
siderably simpler than that of the creamery, and mis- 



Arrangement of Cheese Factories 



333 



takes in arrangement are less liable to be made. 
The governing principle should be that the milk, in 
its transformation from milk to cheese, should pass 
in one direction from the weighing can toward the 
curing room. The outlines given. Figs. 60 and 



F 
























1 ^ 






















■ 






















\ 


B 




B 




B 








-B- 


E 
















, 






















( 


7^ 




^il T 
















"in 













Fig. 61. Plan of cheese factory improperly arranged. 



61, show factories properly and improperly arranged. 
In Fig. 60, the milk taken in at A passes into the 
vats at B, from thence to the curd sink C, and the 
press D, and finally to the curing room E, con- 
stantly in one direction and with a minimum of hand 
labor. Whereas, in Fig. 61. following the same let- 
ters, the milk or curd travels from one end of the 
room to the other and back again. While cheese 
factories, as a rule, are used only during the warm 
months of the year, and perhaps for that reason 



334 Milk and Its Products 

may be less warmly built, still it is not sufficient 
that the superstructure be merely of siding nailed 
to the joists, leaving the inside bare. While, per- 
haps, it is not necessary that the outer siding be 
double, or that building paper be used upon the 
joists, still the joists should always be ceiled upon 
the inside and the ceiling neatly finished in oil. 
The construction of the curing room is the most 
important part of the cheese factory. Here the 
construction should be of such a nature that a 
fairly constant temperature may be maintained. This 
can hardly be secured unless the building is covered 
on the outside with two thicknesses of boards, with 
paper between and tightly ceiled upon the inside. 
This part of the factory, at least, should always be 
upon a solid wall foundation. Constructed in this 
way, if care is taken to ventilate the building thor- 
oughly at night, and to close it tight during the 
day time, a fairly cool curing room can be secured 
even during the hottest weather ; but the temperature 
can be much more satisfactorily regulated if the ven- 
tilation comes through a sub -earth duct for a con- 
siderable distance. This may be arranged by laying 
a three or four -inch glazed sewer pipe at least four 
feet deep, from a point on the surface fifteen or 
twenty rods from the building, and opening into 
the center of the curing room through the fioor. 
If the mouth of this sub -earth duct can be placed 
in such a position that the prevailing winds will 
blow toward it, a circulation of cool air can more 
easily and certainly be secured. 



Farm Dairy Buildings 335 

Combined butter and cheese factories. — The connec- 
tion between the bntter and cheese markets is such 
that it is coming to he of considerable advantage 
for a factory to be able- to make either butter or 
cheese. In many cases but little additional room or 
expense is necessarj^ If in the creamery the receiv- 
ing vat is of the same construction as an ordinary 
cheese vat, that is, piped so that hot water or steam 
can be introduced around it, all that is necessary in 
order to make cheese is to add a cheese press and 
the necessary curing room. In a cheese factory the 
addition of a separator, churn and worker serves to 
transform it into a creamery. It is true that the 
presence of the necessary equipment is always a 
temptation toward the making of skimmed milk cheese 
during a part of the year, but a due regard for the 
reputation of the products of the factory will always 
result in making either full cream cheese or butter 
alone. Naturally the manufacture of cheese is most 
advantageous during the summer months, and the 
manufacture of butter most profitable during the 
winter months. It is not at all unlikely that dairy 
manufacture will tend in this direction in the future, 
instead of certain localities being devoted almost ex- 
clusively to butter manufacture and others to cheese 
manufacture, as in the past. 

Farm dairy buildings. — Heretofore the farm dairy 
work has shared with the other farm industries and 
the domestic life the room necessary to its prosecu- 
tion, and this has been and still is a main reason 
for the general inferiority of farm dairy products. In 



336 Milk and Its Products 

order that the farm dairy be successful, it is neces- 
sary that some certain place be set aside rigorously 
for its prosecution. The dairy cannot be associated 
with the kitchen, the vegetable cellar, or any other » 
part of the farm buildings except to its own detri- 
ment. The room or building devoted to the farm 
dairy need not be large nor elaborate. It should 
simply secure a room of convenient size, shut off 
from any other occupation, well lighted, well venti- 
lated, well drained, and reasonably cool in tempera- 
ture. It is entirely possible that this room be a 
part of the house cellar, but if so it should have 
its own individual exit, and be completely shut off 
from the cellar at large. In the same way it may 
be a part of any of the farm out -buildings, or it 
may be a building by itself. As to whether in a 
moderate sized dairy, where say twenty to fortj^ cows 
are kept, the dairy should have a building separate 
from others or not, depends largely upon the way 
in which the dairy work is carried on. If the dairy 
is so large that power is required for the churning, 
or if the cream is raised by a gravity process, it 
will undoubtedly be of advantage that the dairy 
should occupy a separate building ; but if the cream 
is separated by centrifugal process, and power is not 
required for churning, then the milk may be sepa- 
rated in the barn adjoining the stable, and only the 
cream carried to the dairy room proper. There are 
many advantages in this latter plan. In the first 
place, the labor of carrying the milk to the dairy, 
and the skimmed milk and buttermilk away, is done 



Farm Dairy Buildings 337 

away with. In the second, place, the room required 
for ripening the cream and churning the butter is 
very small, even for a dairy of considerable size, and 
may easily be fitted up in a cool corner of the 
cellar. The only disadvantage is that steam for 
cleaning the utensils is not convenientlj^ at hand, 
but the advantages in most cases will outweigh this 
single aisadvantage. If this requisite of the farm 
dairy building or apartment is secured, namely, a 
room devoted to nothing but butter or cheese manu- 
facture — light, air}^ and well drained — there is no 
reason w^hy the very highest quality of products 
should not be made under such conditions, and 
there are several reasons why a better product can 
be made than under the ordinary factory conditions,^ 
where the production and care of the milk is in the 
hands of a large number of persons, over whom the 
butter -maker or cheese -maker can at best exercise 
only partial control. 



CHAPTER XIX 

STATISTICS AND ECONOMICS OF THE DAIRY 
INDUSTRY 

The dairy industry in its development has fully 
kept pace with other industries and with the pop- 
ulation. The total number of milch cows has in- 
creased between two and three fold since 1850, 
though in 1890 there were slightly few^r cows in 
proportion to the population than in 1850. But while 
the number of cows has not increased faster than the 
population, their product has materially done so. 
This is seen in the average yield per cow and in 
the increase in the production of butter and cheese. 
In 1850 the average yield per cow was 166% gallons. 
This had increased in 1890 to 315.4 gallons, or 
nearh'^ 100 per cent. The total production of butter 
was nearly four times as much in 1890 as it was in 
1850, and the production of cheese slightly less than 
2% times as much. 

The various details of this development are well 
shown in the following tables, compiled from the 
United States Census reports by the Dairy Division 
of the United States Department of Agriculture :* 



*U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletin No. ll (Dairy 
No. 1). 

(338) 



statistics of Production 



339 






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840 



Milk and Its Products 



Value of principal farm producU 


of the United 


States 




1859. 


1879. 


1889. 


Products. 


Per 
cent. 


Total value. 


Per 

cent. 


Total value. 


Per 

cent. 


Total value. 


Meats 

Corn 

Hay 

Dairy products . . 

Wheat 

Cotton .... 
Poultry .... 
Other products {a) 


17.9 
21.6 

9.1 
14.4 

7.5 
12.6 

4.5 
12.4 


$300,000,000 
360,680,878 
152,671,168 
240,400,580 
124,635,545 
211,516,625 
75,000,000 
206,639,527 


22.1 
19.2 
11.3 
10.8 
12 

7.5 

5 
12.1 


$800,000,000 
694,818,304 
409,505,783 
391,131,618 
436,968,463 
271,636,121 
180,000,000 
440,438,353 


23.9 

15.9 

14 

11 
9.1 
8.2 
5.3 

12.6 


$900,000,000 
.597,918,829 
526,632,062 
411,976,522 
342,491,707 
307,008,114 
200,000,000 
472,492,249 


Grand total . • 


100 


$1,671,544,323 


100 $3,624,498,642 


100 


$3,7.58,519,483 



a " Other products " include barley, buckwheat, flax fiber, flaxseed, hemp, 
hops, Irish potatoes, leaf tobacco, maple sirup, maple sugar, oats, rice, rye, 
sorghum molasses, sweet potatoes, and wool. 

But it is not so much in the amount of dairy 
product manufactured as in the way the business is 
done that the dairy industry shows its most remarka- 
ble advances. Up to 1850 the whole dairy output 
was produced, manufactured, and marketed from in- 
dividual farms. Since then the introduction and 
wonderful growth of associated dairying, or the fac- 
tory system, has taken place, and this period has 
also witnessed the introduction of so many and so 
varied machines and utensils that the dairy practice 
of forty or even twenty years ago is entirely rev- 
olutionized in the methods of to-day. But while 
associated dairying has made rapid strides, both in 
butter and cheese making, it is only in cheese 
making that the factory system can be said to have 
at all supplanted private dairying. In 1890 only 
a little more than 7 per cent of all the cheese 
produced was made outside of factories; while in the 



Butter and Cheese Factories 341 

same year, of th^ 1,205,508,384 pounds of butter 
made in the country, only 181,284,916 pounds, or 
about 15 per cent, was made in factories. 

Development of the factof^y system. — Associated 
dairying, or the manufacture of the milk of several 
patrons at one place, under the eye of a single 
person, was at first limited wholly to cheese making. 
The system may be said to have been inaugurated 
by Jesse Williams, in Oneida county, N. Y., when 
in 1851 he began the manufacture of milk, produced 
by himself and several sons located on farms near 
by, into cheese under his immediate supervision. 
From this beginning the number of cheese factories 
increased, slowly at first but afterward more rapidly, 
until in 1870 there were in operation 1,313 cheese 
factories. Up to this time butter factories were un- 
known, but within a few years began to be rapidly 
established, and in 1890 there were of both butter 
and cheese factories 4,712. Ten states — New York, 
Wisconsin, Iowa, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ver- 
mont, Minnesota, Michigan and Kansas, in the order 
named — contained nearly 90 per cent of all the fac- 
tories. Of these there were in New York 1,337, 
in Wisconsin 966, and in Iowa 500, or nearly 60 
per cent of the whole. 

When the first butter factories or creameries, as 
they are more generally called, were established, the 
milk of the several patrons was drawn to the fac- 
tory, set in deep cans, usually surrounded by running 
water, and afterward skimmed and churned. After 
a time the gathered -cream system was introduced. 



342 Milk and Its Products 

Under this system the cream was raised upon the farm, 
usually by a cold deep -setting process, and the repre- 
sentative of the creamery, visiting the different farms, 
skimmed the cream, and left the skimmed milk upon 
the farm. Later on, during the decade beginning in 
1880, the centrifugal separator was introduced, and at 
the present time by far the larger number of but- 
ter factories are operated upon this system. As be- 
•tween the factory system or the private dairy in the 
manufacture of dairy products, both have their ad- 
vantages and disadvantages. The advantages of the 
factory system are so great that practically all of the 
cheese is made in this way, the small amount made 
upon farms and in private dairies being almost 
wholly made for domestic or strictly local consump- 
tion. These advantages in the main are the saving 
of labor and the greater uniformity of product. It 
requires no more time and but slightly more labor 
to make six thousand pounds of milk into cheese 
than six hundred. Few private dairies produce more 
than the latter amount, so that the combination of 
ten men in a factory will result in saving the labor 
of at least five men in the manufacture of the pro- 
duct. Then the cost of building the proper curing 
room is much less under the factory system than in 
the private dairy. Conditions of temperature and 
moisture can readily be secured for a large amount 
of cheese cured together, that would practically be im- 
possible if the same amount of cheese was distrib- 
uted in ten or a dozen parcels and cured separately. 
In associated butter making, while the same ad- 



Dairy Legislation 343 

vantages hold true as in cheese making, they do not 
manifest themselves to the same degree. There is un- 
doubtedly a considerable saving of labor and a vastly 
more uniform product where the milk of many patrons 
is manufactured into butter in a well equipped 
creamery under skilful supervision, but it is scarcely 
possible for a creamery handling the milk of many 
cows, scattered over a wide area and under the care 
of many persons, to make butter of so uniformly fine 
quality as is possible where not only the milk, from 
the time it is drawn until the finished product is 
sent to market, but the care and food of the cows 
as well, are under the same skilful supervision. 
One of the chief advantages of both the cheese and 
butter factory system is that it removes from the 
farm, and particularly from the farm home, a large 
amount of drudgery that in far too many cases fell 
upon those least able to bear it, the women of the 
household ; so that while the butter of the very high- 
est quality will probably for many years to come be 
made in relatively small individual or private dairies 
upon farms, still the factory system is increasing 
very rapidly, and will continue to do so until pro- 
portionately as much butter as cheese is made in 
factories. 

Dairy legislation. — Dairy legislation in the United 
States has had two main objects. First, to secure 
to consumers of milk an unadulterated product. This 
has resulted in the establishment in many states of 
arbitrary legal standards for the quality of milk, and 
in others the passage of general laws prohibiting the 



344 Milh and Its Products 

adulteration of milk in any way (See Appendix C). 
Still, nearly one-third of the states have no laws what- 
ever in regard to the sale of milk/ though most of 
the large cities in these states have adopted municipal 
regulations of the same general nature as the state 
laws. 

The second object of dairy legislation has been to 
guarantee the quality of a dairy product or to pre- 
vent the sale of a spurious product for a genuine one. 
The introduction of the manufacture of artificial but- 
ter or oleomargarine has led to both national and state 
regulation. The manufacture of oleomargarine, and 
particularly its sale as genuine butter, caused a great 
injury to the manufacturers of the genuine product, 
both in the sale of their goods and the prices re- 
ceived for the same. The state of New York was 
one of the first, if not the very first, to enact regu- 
lations controlling the sale of the imitation product, 
and in 1884 passed a law prohibiting the manufac- 
ture and sale of imitation butter within the limits of 
the state. This law was the subject of mnch litiga- 
tion, but has been upheld by the state and national 
courts. It has been pretty thoroughly enforced, and 
is still in operation. In 1886 the National Govern- 
ment passed a law imposing an income tax of two 
cents per pound npon all imitation butter made in 
the country, and levying special license taxes upon 
those engaged in its manufacture and sale. This has 
resulted in a measurable control of the product, and 
with the supplemental laws that have been passed in 
a large number of the states the matter is now under 



Dairy Legislation 345 

careful and strict regulation. These laws have not 
resulted, as was fondly hoped by many dairymen, in 
absolutely stopping the manufacture of imitation but- 
ter, but have resulted in a great improvement in the 
quality of the imitation goods and in securing inno- 
cent purchasers against fraud in palming off upon 
them a spurious for a genuine article. At the same 
time, the cheaper imitation butter has crowded out of 
the market the poorer grades of genuine butter, and 
so improved the general average quality of genuine 
butter. 

More recently the manufacture of so-called filled 
cheese has been regulated in the same way, by the 
passage by the National Congress, in 1896, of a 
law similar to the oleomargarine act, placing a rev- 
enue tax upon all filled cheese manufactured, and a 
license tax upon the manufacturers and dealers. 
This filled cheese is made from skimmed milk, to 
which has been added a certain amount of neutral 
animal fat. 

Within the past twenty years the practice of mak- 
ing cheese from skimmed or partially skimmed milk 
has spread widely throughout the United States. The 
result has been that the reputation of American cheese 
has greatly fallen in the market, both abroad and at 
home. A remedy has been sought by the passage in 
several states, notably New York and Wisconsin, of 
laws authorizing the use, on cheese made from whole 
milk, of "State Brands" guaranteeing the quality of 
cheese so branded. While cheese -makers were at 
first not inclined to take advantage of these laws, 



346 Milk and Its Products 

the " State Brands " are now extensively used with 
very gratifying results as to the reputation of cheese 
so "branded in the general markets. ~ 

Recently legislative control has been sought con- 
corning still another product. A large business 
has grown up in gathering together, usually from 
country merchants who have taken the goods in 
trade, large amounts of poorly made butter and 
butter that has been spoiled or partially spoiled. 
The butter so collected is all melted up together, 
the solid impurities filtered out and the fat clarified 
by various processes that are kept more or less 
secret. The clarified fat is then churned with fresh 
skimmed milk and the resulting butter colored, 
salted and worked in the usual way. In some cases 
the better grades of butter collected from country 
stores are merely reworked and uniformly colored. 
All such butter, whatever the treatment it has 
received, is known as renovated or process butter, 
and is sold under the names "factory" and "imita- 
tion creamery." It is very much improved over the 
original butter from which it was prepared, which 
is often entirely unsalable as butter, but it is dis- 
tinctly inferior to the better grades of fresh butter 
and injures their sale to a greater or less extent. 
For this reason several states have passed laws 
requiring that all butter that has been treated as 
described shall be distinctly branded "Renovated" 
butter. 

Dairy markets. — In no one particular has the dairy 
industry developed in recent years more than in the 



''Procpss'' Butter 347 

line of production throughout the year. Formerly 
almost the whole product was made during the warm 
months. This is measurably so still in the case of 
cheese, but the demand has been constantly increas- 
ing for fresh butter the year round, and at the pres- 
ent time a fairly large proportion of the whole output 
is made during the winter months, the fresh butter 
commanding anywhere from two to ten cents per 
pound more than equally good butter that has been 
held in storage for several months. Very recently, 
with improvements in the methods of refrigeration 
and cold storage, the price- of stored butter of the 
highest quality is reaching nearer to that of the 
fresh made goods, but the best consumers still con- 
tinue to call for a fresh article. 



APPENDIX 

A. USEFUL RULES AND TESTS 

Comparison of Thermometer Scales 

Centigrade Scale — Freezing point of water = 

Boiling point of water = 100 

Difference 100 degrees. 
Fahrenheit Scale — Freezing point of water = 32 
Boiling point of water = 212 

Difference 180 degrees 
100 degrees C. = 180 degrees F. 
5 " = 9 " 



To Change Degrees Centigrade to Equivalent Degrees 
Fahrenheit 

Multiply by f and add 32; e. g.: 65° C. X f = 117 + 32 =149° F. 



To Change Degrees Fahrenheit to Equivalent Degrees 
Centigrade 

Subtract 32 and multiply by |; e. g.: 98° F. — 32 = 66 X I = 37° 
— C. 

To Find the Specific Gravity by the "Board of 
Health" Lactometer 

Multiply the reading by .29, divide by 1,000, and add 1.; e. g.: 
Observed reading, 94 X .29 = 27.26 ^ 1,000 = .02726 + 1. = 1.027 + 
specific gravity. 



(349) 



350 Milk and Its Product 

To Change "Board of Health" Lactometer Degrees to 
Equivalent Quevenne Degrees 

Multiply the "Board of Health" reading by,. 29; e. g.: "Board of 
Health" reading, 105 X .29 = 30.45 = 30+ Quevenne reading. 

To Change Quevenne Lactometer • Degrees to Equivalent 
"Board of Health" Degrees 

Divide the observed Quevenne reading by .29; e. g.: Quevenne 
reading, 34 -i- ,29 = 117.+ ordinary or "Board of Health" reading. 

Temperature Correction for Lactometer 

For Quevenne lactometer, .1 lactometer degree for each degree of 
temperature F. 

For ordinary or "Board of Health" lactometer, 1 lactometer degree 
for each 3 degrees of temperature F. 

To be added if the temperature is higher, or subtracted if it is lower 
than the standard of the lactometer. 

To be used only when the temperature variation is less than 10 
degrees from the standard of the lactometer. 

To Estimate Solids Not Fat, and Total Solids, from the 
Specific Gravity and Per Cent of Fat 

The following formulae may be used: 

Babcock (1) S = — i^k — 

Babcock (2) S = -^ + .2 f 

L 6f 

Richmond (3) T = -^ + -^ + .14 

In the above L = corrected Quevenne lactometer reading, f = per 
cent of fat, S = solids not fat; T = total solids; solids not fat + 
fat = total solids. 

To apply the above formulse, if the percentage of fat is 4.2 and 
the lactometer reading at 60° F. is 32, then 

n.o L + .7f , 32 + .7 (4.2) 

.7 of 4.2 = 2.94 + 32 = 34.94 -- 3,8 = 9.19 = solids not fat. 
9.19 + 4.2 = 13.39 = total solids. 



Useful Rules and Tests 351 

(2) S =-^ + .2 f, S = ^ + 2. (4.2) 

32 -f- 4 = 8, .2 (4.2) = .84, 8 + .84 = 8.84 = solids not fat. 
8.84 + 4.2 = 13.04 = total solids. 

(3)T = i+|i-+.14,T=f+«t'-'+-l* • 

32 -=- 4 = 8, 6 X 4.2 = 25.2 ^ 5 =. 5.04. 
8 + 5.04 + .14 = 13.18 = total solids. 

Litmus Test 

A method of determining whether a liqmd is acid or alkaline. 
In acid solutions, blue litmus turns red. 
In alkaline solutions, red litmus turns blue. 

Phenolphthalein Test 

A method of determining whether a liquid is acid or alkaline. 

In acid solutions, if phenolphthalein is added no change in color is 
produced. 

In alkaline solutions, if phenolphthalein is added the liquid turns 
pink. 

To Determine the Percentage of Lactic Acid in Milk by the Use 

OF Decinqrmal Alkali, or Farrington's Alkaline 

Tablets 

Each c. c. decinormal alkali neutralizes .009 grams lactic acid. 
Therefore, multiply the number of c. c. decinormal alkali used by .009 
and divide the product by the number of grams of milk taken. (Grams 
= c. c. X 1.032); e. g.: 20 c. c. of milk require 9 c. c. decinormal alkali 
to neutralize the acid. The per cent of acid is — 

.009 X 9 = .081 grams lactic acid. 

.081 ^ 20.64 = .0039, or .39 %. 

Each alkaline tablet = 3.8 c. c. decinormal alkali. Each tablet 
is dissolved in 10 c. c. water. Each c. c. tablet solution = .38 c. c. 
decinormal alkali. Therefore, each c. c. tablet solution will neutralize 
.009 X .38 = .0034 grams lactic acid. Therefore, multiply the number 
of c. c. of tablet solution used by .0034 and divide by the number of 
grams of milk taken (grams = c. c X 1.032); e. g.: 

20 c. c. of cream require 35 c. c. of tablet solution to neutralize the 
acid. The per cent of acid is — 

.0034 X 35 = .119 grams lactic acid. 

.119 -- 20.64 = .0058, or .58%. 



352 Milk and Its Products 



To Determine Lactic Acid, Using 17.6 c. c. of Milk or Cream 

Instead of determining lactic acid as described aboA^e, it is often 
more convenient to make the tablet solution of such a strength that 
1 c. c. of the solution will neutralize .01 per cent of lactic acid in the 
amount of milk or cream taken. Since a 17.6 c. c. pipette is always 
found where there is a Babcock testing outfit, 17.6 c. c. is a very con- 
venient assay, as it does not necessitate procuring an additional 
pipette. If 5 Farrington tablets are dissolved in 97 c. c. of water the 
solution will be of such a strength that each c. c. of solution 
will neutralize .01 per cent of lactic acid in 17.6 c. c. of milk, and the 
total number of c. c. used will indicate the amount of lactic acid present 
in hundredths of one per cent; e. g.: 

5 tablets are dissolved in 97 c. c. water, and 35 c. c. of the solu- 
tion are required to neutralize the lactic acid in 17.6 c. c. of cream; 
the percentage of lactic acid present is therefore .35 per cent. 

To Select Milk for Pasteurization 

Dissolve any convenient number of Farrington alkaline tablets in 
an equal number of ounces of water. Provide any convenient small 
measure, and to one measure of milk add two measures of the pre- 
pared tablet solution. If the milk remains uncolored, it contains 
more than .2 of 1 per cent of acid, and is too sour to be safely 
used. If it is colored pink, it contains less than .2 of 1 per cent of 
acid, and may safely be used for pasteurizing or sterilizing. Or, the 
tablet solution will be of very nearly the same strength, and may be 
used in the same way, if 3 tablets are dissolved in 90 c. c. of water. 

To Prepare Viscogen for Restoring the Consistency 
OF Pasteurized Cream 

Two and one-half parts by weight of a good quality of granulated 
sugar are dissolved in five parts of water, and one part of quick lime 
gradually slaked in three parts of water. The resulting mUk of lime 
is strained and added to the sugar solution. The mixture should be 
agitated at frequent intervals, and after two or three hours allowed 
to settle until the clear liquid can be decanted off. This clear liquid 
(viscogen) is the part used and should be kept in well-stoppered bottles, 
as it loses strength and becomes dark-colored when exposed to the air. 
The darkening in color, however, does not impair its usefulness. 



Useful Rules and Tests 



353 



To Standabdize Ckeam and Milk (Pearson) 

When cream is being sent to the city trade or used for certain other 
purposes, it is often desired to have it contain a certain percentage of 
fat and the same each day. It is difficult to adjust a separator to skim 
cream always of the same richness and it has become a more or less 
common practice to skim a heavy cream and "standarize" it. This is 
done by mixing with it enough of the skimmed milk that has just been 
removed, or whole milk or thinner cream, to reduce the fat content 
to the proper point. 

The following is an easy and accurate way to determine the quan- 
tity of skimmed milk, milk, or thin cream that must be added to a 
rich cream to produce a cream of required richness or fat content: 

Draw a rectangle and write at the two left-hand corners the per- 
centages of fat in the fluids to be mixed, and in the center, place the 
required percentage. At the upper right-hand corner put the number 
which represents the difference between the two numbers standing 
in line with it, i. e., the number in the center and the one at the lower 
left-hand corner. At the lower right-hand corner put the number that 
represents the difference between the two numbers in line with it. Now 
let the upper right-hand number refer to the upper left and the lower 
right-hand to the lower left, then the two right-hand numbers show the 
relative quantities of the fluids represented at the left-hand corners 
that must be combined to give a fluid of the desired standard which 
is represented in the center. 

For example, suppose we have cream testing 39 per cent fat, and we 
wish to standardize this to a 30 per cent cream by the use of milk 
testing, 5 per cent fat. Following the directions we have this diagram — 




which shows at once that 39 per cent cream and 5 per cent milk must 
be combined in the proportion of 25 to 9 in order to produce 30 per 
cent cream. If we wish to use 50 pounds of 39 per cent cream, then 18 
pounds of 5 per cent milk must be added, as is shown by this proportion. 

25 : 9 :: 50 : 18 



W 



354 



Milk and lis Products 



Suppose we wish to find the proper amounts of the rich cream and 
milk to produce 170 pounds of 30 per cent cream: 

If we take 25 pounds of the 39 per cent cream and 9 pounds of the 
5 per cent milk, as is shown by the diagram, we will have a total of 34 
pounds, but we want a total of 170 pounds, or five times as much; then 
we must take five times as much of each of the ingredients, or 125 
pounds of 39 per cent cream and 45 pounds of the milk, as is shown by 
these proportions: 

34 : 25 :: 170 : 125 
34 : 9 :: 170 : 45 

In the same manner milks of different quality may be standard- 
ized without going to the trouble of mixing them all together in one 
large vat. ^ 

If it is wanted to mix the milks from two dairies testing 4.9 per cent 
fat and 3.5 per cent to produce a 4.6 per cent milk, the diagram shows 
these milks must be mixed in the proportion of 1.1 to .3 or 11 to 3. 
Thus: 

4.f 




If we have 120 pounds of the 4.9 per cent milk we must mix with 
it 32.7 pounds of 3.5 per cent milk, as is shown by this proportion: 
11 : 3 :: 120 : 32.7 

To Prepare Artificial "Starter" or Ferment for Ripening Milk 
OR Cream* 

A starter is a material containing desirable bacteria for the ripen- 
ing or souring of dairy products. Originally it may be a "commercial 
culture" or it may be taken from a sample of clean sound sour milk 
or buttermilk from any local source. This material in the commercial 
culture may be a preparation of meat broth, milk, or other substances. 
It may be propagated by the dairyman or creameryman in skimmed 
milk or whole milk and, in unusual cases, in other media. 



*From circular No. 10, Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station. . 



Useful Rules and Tests 355 



STEPS IN PROPAGATION 

1. Take three one-quart milk bottles or fruit jars. Glass is prefer- 
able, as it allows the operator to see when all of the dirt has been 
removed, and the condition of the curd can easily be inspected through 
the transparent wall. Three bottles should be employed, for in heating 
glass is likely to break; and it is always well to have a sufficient num- 
ber of containers from which to choose. 

2. Use fresh, clean milk, which must have a nice flavor. It may be 
either whole milk or skimmed milk. Usually it is advisable to use 
whole milk, for it is easier to choose desirable samples before milk has 
passed through the separator than afterward. 

3. Fill the containers one-half to two-thirds full of milk. If they are 
filled full, it is difficult to prevent contamination from the covers, which 
are hard to sterilize when the pasteurization is done in hot water. Protect 
the containers with regular covers (caps or tops) or with glass tumblers. 

4. Pasteurize by heating to 180° to 200° F. for 30 minute^ or longer. 
A temperature of 150° F. kills all sporeless bacteria. Higher tempera- 
tures up to 212° F. do not kill the spores, but they are so weakened by 
the higher heat that they germinate more slowly and their harmful 
effect is retarded. This fact and the results of experience indicate a 
temperature of about 185° F. to 200° F. as best. The heating and cool- 
ing can be done in cans immersed in water. Stirring hastens the pro- 
cesses, but is not necessary when the heating surface is not hotter than 
about 200° F. Where the heating is done by steam, stirring is neces- 
sary to prevent scorching. 

After heating, cool to a ripening temperature of 60° to 75° F. Pas- 
teurization may be accomplished by tying a string about the necks of 
the bottles and suspending them in a pail or vat heated by steam, or 
in a kettle or dish heated on a stove. (If pasteurized over a fire, do not 
let bottles rest on the bottom of receptacle.) Other supports may be 
used to keep the containers from tipping over. The temperature should 
be raised and reduced slowly to prevent breaking the glass. 

5. After pasteurization the milk is ready for inoculation. Inoculate 
in a quiet place where the wind cannot blow dirt and bacteria into this 
clean seed bed. With dry fingers remove the cover and place it in a 
bacterially clean spot, as in a recently scalded dipper. Pour in all of 
the commercial culture, or 2 to 10 per cent from the previous day's 
culture. Be sure that the curd from the previous day is well broken. 
After inoculation, shake the freshly inoculated sample to distribute 
the bacteria. 



356 Milk and Its Products 

6. Incubate at about 60° to 75° F. The first inoculation from the 
commercial culture should be incubated at about 70° to 85° F. The 
small inoculations require higher temperatures than the large inocu- 
lations. By experience an operator can soon learn what inoculation 
and temperature to use to ripen his starter in a given time. Usually a 
6 to 8 per cent inoculation will ripen a starter in twelve hours at about 
65° F. The temperature must be fairly constant. 

7. The starter is ripe when a curd forms. This curd should be soft 
and like custard in appearance. It should not be hard and firm. 

8. After the starter is ripe, hold it at 50° F. or a few degrees lower 
until time to use. For best results a starter should not be held longer 
than a few hours. However, it may be held two or three days and not 
be badly over-ripened. Do not shake the starter before putting it in 
storage. 

9. Upon examination the curd shoiild be smooth and compact, 
without gas pockets. Gas shows the presence of undesirable bacteria. 
A hard, lumpy curd, whey, and high acid show the over-ripe condition, 
which is very undesirable. After the condition of the curd is noted, 
shake well to break it into a smooth, lumpless condition. Shake with 
a rotary motion, being careful not to touch the cap for fear of con- 
tamination. Now smell and taste it, but never from the starter con- 
tainer. Always pour some of the curd into a spoon or cup, and then 
replace the cover immediately. After smelling, it is best to put at least 
a teaspoonful into the mouth. Seek for a desirable, clean, mild, acid 
flavor. The first propagation is likely to be somewhat disagreeable 
because of the presence of some of the original medium. 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS 

In a creamery or a large dairy it is necessary to carry more than a 
pint or a quart of starter. Along with the mother starter a second 
starter of ten to fifty pounds may be carried. After the mother starter 
in the glass container is inoculated, the remainder of the previous day's 
mother starter is poured into the second starter, and the cream is inocu- 
lated from the second starter. In large creameries, third and fourth 
starters are carried. Care should be taken in pasteurization not to cook 
the milk in these large amounts. In the mother starter this makes lit- 
tle difference. 

It is necessary to use a larger inoculation from starter to cream 
than from starter to starter, because the seed bed is not so well pre- 
pared. The inoculation of the cream may vary from 8 to 50 per cent. 



Useful Rules and Tests 357 

Usually it is necessary to propagate the mother starter two or three 
times before the flavor of the commercial culture, which is often very 
disagreeable, will disappear. 

A starter may be carried two to four weeks before it goes "off." 
Often it is carried several months, and often less than two weeks. This 
depends almost altogether on the carefulness of the operator. 

To Detect Ordinary Fermentations or "Taints" in Milk 

Procure as many test tubes one inch in diameter by five inches long 
as there are samples of milk to be tested, and a suitable rack to hold 
them in an upright position. Wash and rinse the tubes thoroughly and 
sterilize them by boiling in water for thirty minutes or by exposure to 
live steam in a sterilizing oven for fifteen minutes. After sterilizing 
they may be allowed to drain dry and then should be kept covered till 
wanted. When wanted for use the tubes should be filled one-half to 
two-thirds full with the suspected milk, closed with a piece of glass or 
plug of cotton and placed in the rack in water kept as nearly constant 
as possible at 100° F. In from three to four hours the samples may be 
inspected without shaking or stirring. Gaseous fermentations will be 
manifested by the appearance of bubbles of gas upon the surface or 
throughout the mass, souring fermentations by coagulation of the milk 
and putrefactive fermentations or "taints" by various odors manifest 
to the nose when the covers are removed. The samples should be kept 
for at least twenty-four hours and examinations made at frequent 
intervals. 

The Wisconsin Curd Test 

This test is used for the same purpose as the fermentation test 
described above, and is made as follows: Procure as many covered 
pint glass jars as there are samples of milk to be tested and clean and 
sterilize them as described above. Fill each jar two-thirds full of the 
milk to be tested, label them plainly and put them up to the neck in 
a tub or vat of water heated to 98° F. When the milk has reached the 
temperature of the water add ten drops of rennet extract to each jar, 
and mix it with the milk by shaking the jar. Allow the jars to stand 
until the curd is firm and then cut the curd finely with a case knife. 
When the curd has settled pour off the whey and allow the curd to 
settle again till a second portion of whey can be removed. The best 
tests are made when the removal of whey is as complete as possible. 
The jars containing the curd are then covered and again placed in the 



358 Milk and Its Products 

tub and the temperature maintained as nearly as possible at 98° F. for 
six to twelve hours, when they may be examined. A solid, firm curd, 
without disagreeable odor or flavor, shows that the milk is pure and 
clean and has been properly handled. Impurities in the different sam- 
ples are indicated by the presence of small round holes (gas cells) seen 
in the curd when it is cut across with a knife, or by various disagree- 
able odors that may be detected when the covers to the jars are removed. 
The apparatus for this test in an improved form is now furnished by 
most of the dairy supply houses. 

MoNRAD Rennet Test 

This test is figured and described on page 241. It is used as fol- 
lows: To determine the ripeness of milk for cheese making, put 5 c. 
c. commercial rennet in a 50 c. c. flask and fill with water to the mark. 
Put 200 c. c. of milk at 86° F. in a suitable tin cup, and allow it to float 
in the vat. Add 5 c. c. of the diluted rennet, and note carefully the time 
required for the first appearance of coagulation. The time required 
will depend upon the amount of milk and rennet used, the strength 
of the rennet, the temperature and the ripeness of the milk. All except 
the last remaining constant from day to .day, the degree of ripeness is 
measured by the time required for coagulation. The riper the milk the 
shorter the time; ordinarily from one and one-half to two minutes will 
be required. The diluted rennet must be made fresh every day. 

Marschall Rennet Test 

For a description and cut of this test, see page 242. Directions for 
its use: To determine the ripeness of milk for cheese making, fill the 
vessel to the mark with milk, add a pipette full of commercial ren- 
net, stir quickly, and place in such a position that the milk may flow 
freely from the orifice. When the milk ceases to flow, note the number 
of graduations exposed. The riper the milk the less the number of 
exposed graduations. 

Hot Iron Test 

A test used to indicate the maturity of curd in cheese making. The 
maturity is usually coincident with the amount of lactic acid present, 
so that the test is commonly called the hot iron test for acid. 

The test is made by heating a bar of iron just short of redness, or 
so that it will hiss readily. A mass of curd is squeezed in the hand till 
ail the whey possible is pressed out. The curd is then applied to the 



Useful Rules and Tests 359 

iron; the surface of the curd, melted by the heat, sticks to the iron, 
and the remainder is carefully and gently pulled away. If the curd is 
very immature, the melted part readily separates from that not affected 
by the heat, but when more mature, numerous fine threads of casein 
are drawn out when the two parts are separated, the length of these 
threads depending upon the maturity of the curd, and commonly meas- 
ured in terms of acid, thus, J-inch acid, 2-inch acid, etc. 

To Calibrate or Test the Accuracy of Graduation of 
Glassware Used in the Babcock Test 

Observe that the graduations are at equal distances apart. Fill 
the bottle carefully to the point with clean rain water, wipe out the 
neck carefiilly, and add from a pipette or burette 2 c. c. water. It should 
fill the bottle exactly to the 10 point. Or, weigh the bottle fiUed with 
clean rain water to the point with delicate balances, fill to the 10 
point and weigh again. The difference in weight should be 2 grams. 
Or, into a dry, empty bottle put 2 c. c. or 27.18 grams mercury, insert 
a tight-fitting plug carefully to the 10 point, and invert the bottle; the 
mercury should just reach to the point. The pipette should hold 17.6 
grams of water, or 239 grams of mercury. Any piece showing a dis- 
crepancy of 2 per cent should be discarded. 

To Test Butter or Cheese with the Babcock Test 

Weigh out on a balance sensitive to .1 gram, from 4 to 8 grams of 
the substance to be tested. Divide into small pieces and put into an 
ordinary test bottle, or bottle with detachable neck, with about 10 
c. c. of warm water. Add the acid, and complete the test in the ordinary 
way. The percentage of fat will be found by the following proportion: 

Weight of sample: 18 :: observed reading : per cent of fat; or 

18 X observed reading 

r^ ' :; = per cent of fat; 

weight of sample 

e. g.: 4.8 grams of cheese tested, showed a reading of 9.2 per cent 

fat in the test bottle. The cheese contained: 

18 X 9.2 

— — = 34.5 per cent fat. 



The Cornell Butter Moisture-Test 

a 
stand, asbest( 



IHE \^OKMKLL I5UTTKK iV101STUKJ<J-X iUST 

The apparatus used in the Cornell moisture-test is an alcohol lamp, 
nd, asbestos sheet, hot-pan lifter, aluminum cup for holding the 



360 Milk and Its Products 

sample, and a special moisture scale. The scale is specially adapted 
for moisture work, but may be used as a cream scale in operating the 
Babcock test. 

The scale has a tare weight for balancing the cup and a large and 
small weight for weighing the sample and obtaining the percentage 
of moisture. The beam has two rows of figures which give readings 
with the larger M'^eight. The lower row gives readings in grams and 
the upper row in percentages. The smaller weight gives readings in 
grams when the weight is moved from 1 forward. Each notch repre- 
sents .02 grams, the total value of the small scale being .2 grams. When 
the small weight is moved from backward, each notch represents a 
loss of .1 per cent of moisture when 20.2 grams of butter are used. The 
small weight is intended to be used only in moisture work. In using 
the scale for Babcock work, the small weight is not used but is left at 
rest on the figure 1. Then, when the scales are balanced, the small 
weight is negligible. Care must be taken not to let any draft of air, 
as from an open window, strike the scales when in use, as they are so 
sensitive that a very slight current of air would throw them out of 
balance. The scales will give readings in percentages only when 20.2 
grams of butter have been weighed or, in other words, when the large 
weight is on 20 (of the gram scale) and the small weight is on zero. 

The cup used is of cast aluminum and is durable and perfectly 
smooth. The absence of creases or crevices allows it to be cleaned and 
dried thoroughly. 

Operation of the test. — It is necessary that a representative sample 
be taken for a moisture-test. If the butter is sold in tubs, the sample 
should be taken from the tub with a butter trier, after the butter has 
been packed. It is best to take three drawings — one from near the edge, 
one from the middle, and one half way between the edge and the mid- 
dle. Some butter-makers test the butter as soon as it is worked. This 
is a mistake, since considerable moisture is lost in the process of print- 
ing and packing. 

Place the sample to be tested in a glass container which has a fairly 
wide mouth, so that the sample can be stirred. A quart fruit jar is 
useful for this purpose. Then hold the container in warm water until 
the butter begins to melt. Remove the container from the warm bath 
and thoroughly mix the melted with the unmelted butter. In the lab- 
oratory a long-bladed cheese knife was found very useful for mixing 
the butter. A wooden stirrer should not be used, as it is likely to take 
up moisture from the sample. The process of melting the butter and 
mixing it with the unmelted butter is repeated until the sample con- 



Useful Rules and Tests 361 

tains no lumps and the entire mass is about the consistency of thick 
cream. The container is then transferred to cold water and the sample 
thoroughly mixed as the butter cools. There is a tendency for the fat 
around the outside of the container to harden rapidly and force the 
water toward the center of the jar. For this reason special care must 
be taken to keep the butter scraped off the sides of the container and 
thoroughly mixed with the softer butter in the center of the jar. When 
the sample is all of about the texture of ordinary butter the mixing 
may be stopped. If the process has been properly done, the water will 
be evenly distributed throughout the sample and any desired amount 
of the latter may be removed for testing. 

After the cup is thoroughly cleaned and dried, it is placed on the 
scales and balanced by means of the tare weight on the round bar 
attached to the beam of the scales. The large weight should rest on the 
zero mark (of the gram scale) and the small weight on 1 while the cup 
is being balanced. The cup should not be balanced until it is about 
the same temperature as that of the room. After the cup is balanced, 
the larger weight is moved to the 20 mark (of the gram scale) and the 
small weight to the zero mark. Butter from the prepared sample is 
then added to the cup untU the scales are accurately balanced. ,The 
alcohol lamp is then placed under the iron stand and the asbestos sheet 
placed on the stand. The lamp is lighted and the cup placed on the 
asbestos sheet. It is well to light the lamp at least two or three minutes 
before placing the cup on the asbestos in order to heat the asbestos and 
save time. T-^e heat of the j&ame may be increased or diminished by 
raising or lowering the wick. The cup should always be handled with 
the hot-pan lifter, as by so doing it will be kept clean and errors in weight 
due to dirt on the cup will be avoided. 

While the sample is heating it should be shaken from time to time, 
as this breaks up the blanket of casein on the surface and hastens the 
escape of moisture. As soon as the casein has lost its snow-white color 
the cup should be removed from the flame. When the moisture has 
aU been driven from the sample, a slightly pungent odor may be noticed. 
This may also be used as a guide to tell when the sample has been 
heated enough. The foam begins to subside at this point. Often one or 
two small pieces of casein are slow to give up their moisture. This is 
indicated by the snow-white color of the pieces. Evaporation can be 
hastened by shaking the sample with a rotary motion and thoroughly 
mixing these pieces with the hot liquid. If this is not done, one might 
have to heat the sample so long that some of the fat, which had already 
given up its moisture, would volatilize. 



362 Milk and Its Products 

After all the moisture is driven off, the sample is allowed to cool 
to room temperature. While cooling, the cup should be covered with 
something (a sheet of paper will do) to prevent the sample taking up 
moisture from the atmosphere. After cooling, the cup is placed on the 
scales. The sample is lighter than before heating, because it has lost 
its moisture. The bar of the scales wUl therefore remain down. The 
weights are then reversed until the scales just balance. 

Each notch that the larger weight is reversed has a value of 1 per 
cent (reading on the upper scale), and each notch that the smaller 
weight is reversed has a value of .1 per cent. If, for example, after 
heating, the scales just balance when the larger weight rests on 15 
(upper scale) and the smaller weight rests on .2, it would mean that 
the sample contained 15.2 per cent moisture. 

It may be thought by those using the Cornell test for the first time 
that the use of the asbestos sheet is unnecessary. It is true that any 
one who is very familiar with moisture determinations may heat but- 
ter in a direct flame and get fairly accurate results. But the heat of 
a flame is so intense and butter volatilizes so easily that the use of the 
asbestos sheet is always advisable. 



Metric System 



363 



B. METRIC SYSTEM 

The meter is the primary unit of length. It is equal to 
ToTToW^^th part of the distance measured on a meridian of 
the earth from the equator to the pole, and equals about 39.37 
inches. 





Measures op Length. 




Equivalents. 


Myriameter 




10,000 


meters 


6.213T miles 


Kilometer 




1,000 


" 


j 0.62137 mile, or ■ 
* 3280 ft. 10 in. 


Hectometer 




100 


" 


328 ft. 1 in. 


Dekameter 




10 


" 


393.7 in. 


Meter 




1 


meter 


39.37 in. 


Decimeter 




.1 


" 


3.937 in. 


Centimeter 




.01 


" 


.3937 in. 


Millimeter 




.001 


" 


.03937 in. 



Measures of Surface. 



Equivalents. 



Hectare 

Are 

Centare 



10,000 sq. meters 
100 " 
1 " meter 



2.471 acres 

119.6 sq. yards 

1550. sq. inches. 



Measures of Capacity. 


Equivalents. " 




No. OF 

Liters. 


Cubic Measure. 


Dry Measure. 


Liquid ok Wine 
Measure. 


Kiloliter, or Stere 

Hectoliter 

Dekaliter 

Liter , 

Deciliter 

Centmter 

Milliliter 


1000 
100 
10 
1 
.1 
.01 
.001 


1 cu. meter 

.1" 
10 cu. decimeters 
1 cu. decimeter 

.1 " 
10 cu. centimeters 
.1 cu. centimeter 


1.308 cu. yards 

2 bu. 3.35 pks. 

9.08 quarts 
.909 quart 

6.1022 cu. inches 
.6102 cu. inch 
.061 " " 


264.17 gal. 
26.417 gal. 
2.6417 gal. 
1.0567 qts. 
.845 gill 
.338 11. oz. 
.27 fl. dram 



364 



Milk and Its Products 



System of Weights. 


Equivalknts. 




No. OF Gkams. 


Weight of Water 


Avoirdupois 




Maximum Density. 


Weight. 


Millier, or Tonneau 


1,000,000 


1 cu. meter 


2204.6 pounds 


Quintal 


100,000 


1 hectoliter 


220.46 " 


Myriagram 


10,000 


1 dekaliter 


22.046 " 


Kilogram, or Kilo 


1,000 


1 liter 


2.2046 " 


Hectogram 


100 


1 deciliter 


3.5274 oz. 


Dekagram 


10 


10 cu. centimeters 


.3527 " 


Gram 


1 


1 cu. centimeter 


15.432 grains 


Decigram 


.1 


.1 " 


1.5432 " 


Centigram 


.01 


10 cu. millimeters 


.1543 grain 


Milligram 


.001 


1 " millimeter 


.0154 " 



Common 
Measure. 


Equivalents. 


Common 
Measure. 


Equivalents. 


An inch 


2.54 centimeters 


A cu. yard 


.7646 cu. meter 


A foot 


.3048 meter 


A cord 


3.624 steres 


A yard 


.9144 " 


A liquid qt. 


.9465 liter 


A rod 


5.029 meters 


A gallon 


3.786 liters 


A mile 


1.6093 kilometers 


AOifyqt. 


1.101 " 


A sq. inch 


6.452 sq. centimeters 


A peck 


8.811 " 


A " foot 


.0929 sq. meter 


A bushel 


35.24 " 


A " yard 


.8361 " 


An oz. avoirdupois 


28.35 grams 


A " rod 


25.29 sq. meters 


A pound " 


.4536 kilogram 


An acre 


.4047 hectare 


A ton 


.9072 tonneau 


A sq. mile 


259 hectares. 


A grain troy 


.0648 gram 


A ou. inch 


16.39 cu. centimeters 


An oz. " 


31.104 grams 


A " foot 


.02832 cu. meter 


A pound " 


.3732 kilogram 



Legal Standards for Dairy Products 365 

C. LEGAL STANDARDS FOB DAIBT PRODUCTS 
DAIRY LAWS 

FEDERAL STANDARDS. 

By authority of the Act of Congress, approved March 3, 1903, and 
generally known as the "Pure Food Law" the Secretary of Agriculture 
is empowered "to establish standards of purity for food products and 
to determine what are regarded as adulterations therein." The follow- 
ing standards have been established for dairy products and are pub- 
lished in Circular No. 19 of the office of the Secretary of Agriculture 
under date of June 26, 1906. These standards are generally accepted 
throughout the United States and have been officially adopted by many 
of the states. 

Milk and Its Products 

a. MILKS 

1. Milk is the fresh, clean, lacteal secretion obtained by the com- 
plete milking of one or more healthy cows, properly fed and kept, 
excluding that obtained within fifteen days before and ten days after 
calving, and contains not less than eight and one-half (8.5) per cent 
of solids not fat, and not less than three and one-quarter (3.25) per 
cent of mUk fat. 

2. Blended milk is milk modified in its composition so as to have a 
definite and stated percentage of one or more of its constituents. 

3. Skim milk is milk from which a part or all of the cream has been 
removed and contains not less than nine and one-quarter (9.25) per 
cent of milk solids. 

4. Pasteurized milk is milk that has been heated below boiling but 
sufficiently to kill most of the active organisms present and immediately 
cooled to 50° F. or lower. 

5. Sterilized milk is milk that has been heated at the temperature 
of boiling water or higher for a length of time sufficient to kill all organ- 
isms present. 

6. Condensed milk, evaporated milk, is milk from which a consider- 
able portion of water has been evaporated and contains not less than 
twenty-eight (28) per cent of milk solids of which not less than twenty- 
seven and five-tenths (27.5) per cent is milk fat. 



366 Milk and Its Products 

7. Sweetened condensed milk is milk from which a considerable 
portion of water has been evaporated and to which sugar (sucrose) 
has been added, and contains not less than twenty-eight (28) per cent 
of milk solids, of which not less than twenty-seven and five-tenths 
(27.5) per cent is milk fat. 

8. Condensed skim milk is skim milk from which a considerable 
portion of water has been evaporated. 

9. Buttermilk is the product that remains when butter is removed 
from milk or cream in the process of churning. 

10. Goat's milk, ewe's milk, et cetera, are the fresh, clean, lacteal 
secretions, free from colostrum, obtained by the complete milking of 
healthy animals other than cows, properly fed and kept, and conform 
in name to the species of animal from which they are obtained. 



1. Cream is that portion of milk, rich in milk fat, which rises to the 
surface of milk on standing, or is separated from it by centrifugal force, 
is fresh and clean and contains not less than eighteen (18) per cent of 
milk fat. 

2. Evaporated cream, clotted cream, is cream from which a consider- 
able portion of water has been evaporated. 

C. MILK FAT OR BUTTER FAT 

1. Milk fat, butter fat, is the fat of milk and has a Reichert-Meissl 
number not less than twenty-four (24) and a specific gravity not less 

'40° cr 

than 0.905 



/ 40° C. \ 
V40° C.J 



d. BUTTER 



1. Butter is the clean, non-rancid product made by gathering in 
any manner the fat of fresh or ripened milk or cream into a mass, which 
also contains a small portion of the other milk constitutents, with or 
without salt, and contains not less than eighty-two and five-tenths 
(82.5) per cent of milk fat. By acts of Congress approved August 2, 
1886, and May 9, 1902, butter may also contain added coloring matter. 

2. Renovated butter, process butter, is the product made by melting 
butter and reworking, without the addition or use of chemicals or any 
substances except milk, cream, or salt, and contains not more than 



Legal Standards for Dairy Products 367 

sixteen (16) per cent of water and at least eighty-two and five-tenths 
(82.5) per rent of milk fat. 

e. CHEESE 

1. Cheese is the sound, solid, and ripened product made from milk 
or cream by coagulating the casein thereof with rennet or lactic acid, 
with or without the addition of ripening ferments and seasoning, and 
contains, in the water-free substance, not less than fifty (50) per cent 
of milk fat. By act of Congress, approved June 6, 1896, cheese may 
also contain added coloring matter. 

2. Skim milk cheese is the sound, solid, and ripened product, made 
from skim milk by coagulating the casein thereof with rennet or lactic 
acid, with or without the addition of ripening ferments and seasoning. 

3. Goat's m,ilk cheese, ewe's milk cheese, et cetera, are the sound, 
ripened products made from the milks of the animals specified, by 
coagulating the casein thereof with rennet or lactic acid, with or without 
the addition of ripening ferments and seasoning. 

/. ICE CREAMS 

1. Ice cream, is a frozen product made from cream and sugar, with 
^ or without a natural flavoring, and contains not less than fourteen 

(14) per cent of milk fat. 

2. Fruit ice cream is a frozen product made from cream, sugar, and 
sound, clean, mature fruits, and contains not less than twelve (12) per 
cent of milk fat. 

• 3. Nut ice cream is a frozen product made from cream, sugar and 
sound, nonrancid nuts, and contains not less than twelve (12) per cent 
of milk fat. 

g. MISCELLANEOUS MILK PRODUCTS 

1. Whey is the product remaining after the removal of fat and casein 
from milk in the process of cheese-making. 

2. Kumiss is the product made by the alcoholic fermentation of 
mare's or cow's milk. 

STATE STANDARDS FOR MILK AND CREAM 

The following states and territories, viz., Alabama, Arizona, Ark- 
ansas, Delaware, Maryland, Mississippi, New Mexico, South Caro- 



368 Milh and Its Products 

lina, Tennessee and West Virginia have established no legal 
standard. 

In the other states the percentage standards are as follows: 

Milk 

Total Solids Fats Cream 

Per cent Per cent Per cent 

California 11.5 3. 18. 

Colorado 3. 16 

Connecticut 11.75 3.25 16. 

Florida 11.75 3.25 18. 

Georgia 11.75 3.25 18. 

Idaho 11. 3.2 18. 

Illinois 11.5 3. 18. 

Indiana 11.75 3.25 18. 

Iowa 12. 3. 16. 

Kansas 11.75 3.25 18. 

Kentucky 11.75 3.25 18. 

Louisiana 12. 3.5 

Maine 11.75 3.25 18. 

Massachusetts 12.15 3.35 15. 

Michigan 12.5 3. 

Minnesota 13. 3.25 20. 

Missouri ; 12. 3.25 18. 

Montana 11.75 3.25 20. 

Nebraska 3. 18. 

Nevada 11.75- 3.25 18. 

New Hampshire 12, . . 18. 

New Jersey 11.5 3, 16. 

New York 11.5 3. 18. 

North Carolina 11.75 3.25 18. 

North Dakota 12. 3. 15. 

Ohio 12. 3. 

Oklahoma 3. 18. 

Oregon 12. 3.2 20, 

Pennsylvania 12. 3.25 18. 

Rhode Island 12. 2.5 

South Dakota 11.75 3.25 18. 

Texas. 11.75 3.25 18, 

Utah 12. 3.2 

Vermont 11.75 3.25 18. 

Virginia 11.75 3.25 18. 

Washington 12. 3.25 18. 

Wisconsin i . . 1 1.5 3. 18. 

Wyoming 3.25 18. 



Dairy Laws 369 

The full texts of the National Oleomargarine Law 
and the Filled Cheese Law are as follows: 

THE OLEOMARGARINE LAW 

[Act of August 2, 1886 (24 Stat., 209), as amended by acts of October 1, 1890 (26 
Stat., 621), and May 9, 1902, to make oleomargarine and other imitation dairy 
products subject to the laws of any State, or Territory, or the District of Col- 
umbia into which they are transported, and to change the tax on oleomar- 
garine, and to impose a tax, provide for the inspection, and regulate the manu- 
facture and sale of certain dairy products, and to amend an act entitled "An 
act defining butter, also imposing a tax upon and regulating the manufacture, 
sale, importation, and exportation of oleomargarine," approved August 2, 1886.] 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United 
States of America in Congress assembled, That all articles known as oleo- 
margarine, butterine, imitation, process, renovated, or adulterated 
butter, or imitation cheese, or any substance in the semblance of butter 
or cheese not the usual product of the dairy and not made exclusively 
of pure and unadulterated milk or cream, transported into any State 
or Territory or the District of Columbia, and remaining therein for use, 
consumption, sale, or storage therein shall, upon the arrival within 
the limits of such State or Territory or the District of Columbia, be 
subject to the operation and effect of the laws of such State or Terri- 
tory or the District of Columbia, enacted in the exercise of its police 
powers to the same extent and in the same manner as though such arti- 
cles or substances had been produced in such State or Territory or the 
District of Columbia, and shall not be exempt therefrom by reason 
of being introduced therein in original packages or otherwise. 

Section 1, Act of August 2, 1886: 

That for the purpose of this act the word "butter" shall be under- 
stood to mean the food product usually known as butter, and which 
is made exclusively from milk or cream, or both, with or without com- 
mon salt, and with or without additional coloring matter. 

Sec. 2, Act of August 2, 1886: 

That for the purposes of this act certain manufactured substances, 
certain extracts, and certain mixtures and compounds, including such 
mixtures and compounds with butter, shall be known and designated 
as "oleomargarine," namely: All substances heretofore known as oleo- 
margarine, oleo, oleomargarine-oil, butterine, lardine, suine and neutral; 
all mixtures and compounds of oleomargarine, oleo, oleomargarine-oil, 
butterine, lardine, suine, and neutral; all lard extracts and tallow 
extracts; and all mixtures and compounds of tallow, beef -fat, suet, 
lard, lard-oil, vegetable oil, annotto, and other coloring matter, intes- 



370 Milk and Its Products 

tinal fat, and offal fat made in imitation or semblance of butter, or when 
so made, calculated or intended to be sold as butter or for butter. 

Sec. 3, Act of August 2, 1886, as amended by Section 2 of the Act 
of May 9, 1902, provides as follows: 

That special taxes are imposed as follows: 

Manufacturers of oleomargarine shall pay six hundred dollars. 
Every person who manufactures oleomargarine for sale shall be deemed 
a manufacturer of oleomargarine. 

And any person that sells, vends, or furnishes oleomargarine for the 
use and consumption of others, except to his ovm, family table without 
compensation, who shall add to or mix with such oleomargarine any arti- 
ficial coloration that causes it to look like butter of any shade of yellow 
shall also be held to be a manufacturer of oleomargarine within the mean- 
ing of said Act, and subject to the provisions thereof. 

Wholesale dealers in oleomargarine shall pay four hundred and 
eighty dollars. Every person who sells or offers for sale oleomargarine 
in the original manufacturer's packages shall be deemed a wholesale 
dealer in oleomargarine. But any manufacturer of oleomargarine who 
has given the required bond and paid the required special tax, and who 
sells only oleomargarine of his own production, at the place of manu- 
facture, in the original packages to which the tax-paid stamps are 
aflEixed, shall not be required to pay the special tax of a wholesale dealer 
in oleomargarine on account of such sales. 

Retail dealers in oleomargarine shall pay forty-eight dollars. Every 
person who sells oleomargarine in less quantities than ten pounds at 
one time shall be regarded as a retail dealer in oleomargarine. And 
sections thirty-two hundred and thirty-two, thirty-two hundred and 
thirty-three, thirty-two hundred and thirty-four, thirty-two hundred 
and thirty-five, thirty-two hundred and thirty-six, thirty-two hundred 
and thirty-seven, thirty-two hundred and thirty-eight, thirty-two 
hundred and thirty-nine, thirty-two hundred and forty, thirty-two 
hundred and forty-one, and thirty-two hundred and forty-three of the 
Revised Statutes of the United States are, so far as applicable, made 
to extend to and include and apply to the special taxes imposed by this 
section, and to the persons upon whom they are imposed: Provided 
further, That wholesale dealers who vend no other oleomargarine or butter- 
ine except that upon which a tax of one-fourth of one cent per pound is 
imposed by this Act, as amended, shall pay two hundred dollars; and such 
retail dealers as vend no other oleomargarine or butterine except that upon 
which is imposed by this Act, as amended, a tax of one-fourth of one cent 
per pound shall pay six dollars. 



Dairy Laws 371 

Sec. 4, Act of August 2, 1886: . 

That every person who carries on the business of a manufacturer of 
oleomargarine without having paid the special tax therefor, as required 
by law, shall, besides being liable to the payment of the tax, be fined 
not less than one thousand and not more than five thousand dollars; 
and every person who carries on the business of a wholesale dealer in 
oleomargarine without having paid the special tax therefor, as required 
by law, shall, besides being liable to the payment of the tax, be fined 
not less than five hundred nor more than two thousand dollars; and 
every person who carries on the business of a retail dealer in oleomar- 
garine without having paid the special tax therefor, as required by law, 
shall, besides being liable to the payment of the tax, be fined not less 
than fifty nor more than five hundred dollars for each and every offence. 

Sec. 5, Act of August 2, 1886: 

That every manufacturer of oleomargarine shall file with the col- 
lector of internal revenue of the district in which his manufactory is 
located such notices, inventories, and bonds, shall keep such books and 
render such returns of material and products, shall put up such signs 
and affix such number to his factory, and conduct his business under 
such surveillance of officers and agents as the Commissioner of Internal 
Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may, by 
regulation, require. But the bond required of such manufacturer shall 
be with sureties satisfactory to the collector of internal revenue, and 
in a penal sum of not less than five thousand dollars ; and the sum of 
said bond may be increased from time to time and additional sureties 
required at the discretion of the collector, or under instructions of the 
Commissioner of Internal Revenue. 

Sec. 6, Act of August 2, 1886: 

That all oleomargarine shall be packed by the manufacturer thereof 
in firkins, tubs, or other wooden packages not before used for that pur- 
pose; each containing not less than ten pounds, and marked, stamped, 
and branded as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the 
approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, shall prescribe; and all sales 
made by manufacturers of oleomargarine, and wholesale dealers in 
oleomargarine shall be in original stamped packages. Retail dealers 
in oleomargarine must sell only from original stamped packages, in 
quantities not exceeding ten pounds, and shall pack the oleomargarine 
sold by them in suitable wooden or paper packages which shall be 
marked and branded as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with 
the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, shall prescribe. Every 
person who knowingly sells or offers for sale, or delivers or offers to 



372 Milk and Its Products 

deliver, any oleomargarine in any other form than in new wooden or 
paper packages as above described, or who packs in any package any 
oleomargarine in any manner contrary to law or who falsely brands 
any package or affixes a stamp on any package denoting a less amount 
of tax than that required by law shall be fined for each offense not more 
than one thousand dollars, and be imprisoned not more than two years. 

Sec. 7, Act of August 2, 1886: 

That every manufacturer of oleomargarine shall securely affix, by 
pasting, on each package containing oleomargarine manufactured by 
him, a label on which shall be printed, besides the number of the man- 
ufactory and the district and State in which it is situated, these words: 
"Notice — The manufacturer of the oleomargarine herein contained 
has complied with all the requirements of law. Every person is cau- 
tioned not to use either this package again or the stamp thereon again, 
nor to remove the contents of this package without destroying said 
stamp, iinder the penalty provided by law in such cases." Every manu- 
facturer of oleomargarine who neglects to affix such label to any package 
containing oleomargarine made by him, or sold or offered for sale by 
or for him, and every person who removes any such label so affixed 
from any such package, shall be fined fifty dollars for each package 
in respect to which such offense is committed. 

Sec. 8, Act of August 2, 1886, as amended by Section 3, Act of May 
9, 1902: 

That upon oleomargarine which shall he manufactured and sold, or 
removed for consumption or use, there shall be assessed and collected a 
tax of ten cents per pound, to be paid by the manufacturer thereof; and any 
fractional part of a pound in a package shall be taxed as a pound: Pro- 
vided, When oleomargarine is free from artificial coloration that causes it 
to look like butter of any shade of yellow said tax shall be one-fourth of 
one cent per pound. The tax levied by this section shall be represented by 
coupon stamps; and the provisions of existing laws governing the engrav- 
ing, issue, sale, accountability, effacement, and destruction of stamps 
relating to tobacco and snuff, as far as applicable, are hereby made to apply 
to stamps provided for by this section. 

Sec. 9, Act of August 2, 1886: 

That whenever any manufacturer of oleomargarine sells, or removes 
for sale or consumption, any oleomargarine upon which the tax is 
required to be paid by stamps, without the use of the proper stamps, it 
shall be the duty of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, within a 
period of not more than two years alter such sale or removal, upon 
satisfactory proof, to estimate the amount of tax which has been 



Dairy Laws . 373 

omitted to be paid, and to make an assessment therefor and certify the 
same to the collector. The tax so assesed shall be in addition to the 
penalties imposed by law for such sale or removal. 

Sec. 10, Act of August 2, 1886: 

That all oleomargarine imported from foreign countries shall, in 
addition to any import duty imposed on the same, pay an internal 
revenue tax of fifteen cents per pound, such tax to be represented by 
coupon stamps as in the case of oleomargarine manufactured in the 
United States. The stamps shall be affixed and canceled by the owner 
or importer of the oleomargarine while it is in the custody of the proper 
custom-house officers; and the oleomargarine shall not pass out of the 
custody of said officers until the stamps have been so affixed and can- 
celed, but shall be put up in wooden packages, each containing not 
less than ten pounds, as prescribed in this act for oleomargarine manufac- 
tured in the United States, before the stamps are affixed; and the owner 
or importer of such oleomargarine shall be liable to all the penal pro- 
visions of this act prescribed for manufacturers of oleomargarine manu- 
factured in the United States. Whenever it is necessary to take any 
oleomargarine so imported to any place other than the public stores of 
the United States for the purpose of affixing and canceling such stamps, 
the collector of customs, of the port where such oleomargarine is entered 
shall designate a bonded warehouse to which it shall be taken, under 
the control of such customs officer as such collector may direct; and 
every officer of customs who permits any such oleomargarine to pass 
out of his custody or control without compliance by the owner or 
importer thereof with the provisions of this section relating thereto, 
shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall be fined not less than one 
thousand dollars nor more than five thousand dollars, and imprisoned 
not less than six months nor more than three years. Every person who 
sells or offers for sale any imported oleomargarine, or oleomargarine 
purporting or claimed to have been imported, not put up in packages 
and stamped as provided by this act, shall be fined not less than five 
hundred dollars nor more than five thousand dollars, and be imprisoned 
not less than six months nor more than two years. 

Sec. 11, Act of August 2, 1886: 

That every person who knowingly purchases or receives for sale 
any oleomargarine which has not been branded or stamped according 
to law shall be liable to a penalty of fifty dollars for each such offense. 

Sec. 12, Act of August 2, 1886: 

That every person who knowingly purchases or receives for sale 
any oleomargarine from any manufacturer who has not paid the special 



374 Milh and Its Products 

tax shall be liable for each offense to a penalty of one hundred dollars, 
and to a forfeiture of all articles so purchased or received, or of the full 
value thereof. 

Sec. 13, Act of August 2, 1886: 

That whenever any stamped package containing oleomargarine is 
emptied, it shall be the duty of the person in whose hands the same is 
to destroy utterly the stamps thereon; and anj^ person who willfully 
neglects or refuses so to do shall for each such offense be fined not exceed- 
ing fifty dollars, and imprisoned not less than ten days nor more than 
six months. And any person who fraudulently gives away or accepts 
from another, or who sells, buys, or uses for packing oleomargarine, 
any such stamped package, shall for each such offense be fined not exceed- 
ing one hundred dollars, and be imprisoned not more than one year. 
Any revenue officer may destroy any emptied oleomargarine package 
upon which the tax-paid stamp is found. 

Sec. 14, Act of August 2, 1886: 

That there shall be in the office of the Commissioner of Internal 
Revenue an analj^tical chemist and a microscopist, who shall each be 
appointed by the Secretary of the Treasury, and shall each receive a 
salary of two thousand five hundred dollars per annum; and the Com- 
missioner of Internal Revenue may, whenever in his judgment the 
necessities of the service so require, employ chemists and microscopists, 
to be paid such compensation as he may deem proper, not exceeding 
in the aggregate any appropriation made for that purpose. And such 
Commissioner is authorized to decide what substances, extracts, mix- 
tures, or compounds which may be submitted for his inspection in 
contested cases are to be taxed under this act; and his decision in mat- 
ters of taxation under this act shall be final. The Commissioner may 
also decide whether any substance made in imitation or semblance of 
butter, and intended for human consumption, contains ingredients 
deleterious to the public health; but in case of doubt or contest his 
decision in this class of cases may be appealed from to a board hereby 
constituted for the purpose, and composed of the Surgeon-General of 
the Army, the Surgeon-General of the Navy, and the Commissioner 
(now Secretary) of Agriculture; and the decisions of this board shall be 
final in the premises. 

Sec. 15, Act of August 2, 1886: 

That all packages of oleomargarine subject to tax under this act 
that shall be found without stamps or marks as herein provided, and 
all oleomargarine intended for human consumption which contains 
ingredients adjudged, as hereinbefore provided, to be deleterious to 



Dairy Laws 375 

the public health, shall be forfeited to the United States. Any person 
who shall willfully remove or deface the stamps, marks, or brands on 
a package containing oleomargarine taxed as provided herein shall be 
guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall be punished by a fine of not less than 
one hundred dollars nor more than two thousand dollars, and by 
imprisonment for not less than thirty days nor more than six months. 

Sec. 16, Act of August 2, 1886: 

That oleomargarine may be removed from the place of manu- 
facture for export to a foreign country without payment of tax or aflSx- 
ing stamps thereto, under such regulations and the filing of such bonds 
and other security as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the 
approval of the Secretar5^ of the Treasury, may prescribe. Every per- 
son who shall export oleomargarine shall brand upon every tub, firkin, 
or other package containing such article the word "Oleomargarine," 
in plain Roman letters not less than one-half inch square. 

Sec. 17, Act of August 2, 1886: 

That whenever any person engaged in carrying on the business of 
manufacturing oleomargarine defrauds, or attempts to defraud, the 
United States of the tax on the oleomargarine produced by him, or any 
part thereof, he shall forfeit the factory and manufacturing apparatus 
used by him, and all oleomargarine and all raw material for the pro- 
duction of oleomargarine found in the factory and on the factory prem- 
ises, and shall be fined not less than five hundred dollars nor more than 
five thousand dollars, and be imprisoned not less than six months nor 
more than three years. 

Sec. 18, Act of August 2, 1886: 

That if any manufacturer of oleomargarine, any dealer therein, or 
any importer or exporter thereof shall knowingly or willfully omit, 
neglect, or refuse to do, or cause to be done, any of the things required 
by law in the carrying on or conducting of his business, or shall do any- 
thing by this act prohibited, if there be no specific penalty or punish- 
ment imposed by any other section of this act for the neglecting, omit- 
ting, or refusing to do, or for the doing or causing to be done, the thing 
required or prohibited, he shall pay a penalty of one thousand dollars; 
and if the person so offending be the manufacturer of or a whole- 
sale dealer in oleomargarine, all the oleomargarine owned by him, or 
in which he has any interest as owner, shall be forfeited to the 
United States. 

Sec. 19, Act of August 2, 1886: 

That all fines, penalties, and forfeitures imposed by this act may be 
recovered in any court of competent jurisdiction. 



376 Milk and Its Products 

Sec. 20, Act of August 2, 1886: 

That the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval 
of the Secretary of the Treasury, may make all_ needful regulations for 
the carrying into efifect of this act. 

Sec. 21, Act of August 2, 1886: 

That this act shall go into effect on the ninetieth day after its pas- 
sage; and all wooden packages containing ten or more pounds of oleo- 
margarine found on the premises of any dealer on or after the ninetieth 
day succeeding the date of the passage of this act shall be deemed to be 
taxable under section eight of this act, and shall be taxed, and shall 
have affixed thereto the stamps, marks, and brands required by this act 
or by regulations made pursuant to this act; and for the purpose of 
securing the affixing of the stamps, marks and brands required by this 
act, the oleomargarine shall be regarded as having been manufactured 
and sold, or removed from the manufactory for consumption or use, on 
or after the day this act takes effect ; and such stock on hand at the time 
of the taking effect of this act may be stamped, marked, and branded 
under special regulations of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, 
approved by the Secretary of the Treasury; and the Commissioner of 
Internal Revenue may authorize the holder of such packages to mark 
and brand the same and to aflSx thereto the proper tax-paid stamps. 

Sec. 4, Act of May 9, 1902: 

That for the purpose of this act "butter" is hereby defined to mean 
an article of food as defined in "An Act defining butter, also imposing 
a tax upon and regulating the manufacture, sale, importation, and 
exportation of oleomargarine," approved August second, eighteen hun- 
dred and eighty-six; that "adulterated butter" is hereby defined to 
mean a grade of butter produced by mixing, reworking, rechurning in 
milk or cream, refining, or in any way producing a uniform, purified, 
or improved product from different lots or parcels of melted or unmelted 
butter or butter fat, in which any acid, alkali, chemical, or any sub- 
stance whatever is introduced or used for the purpose or with the effect 
of deodorizing or removing therefrom rancidity, or anj^ butter or butter 
fat with which there is mixed any substance foreign to butter as herein 
defined, with intent or effect of cheapening in cost the product or any 
butter in the manufacture or manipulation of which any process or 
material is used with intent or effect of causing the absorption of abnor- 
mal quantities of water, milk, or cream; that "process butter" or "reno- 
vated butter" is hereby defined to mean butter which has been sub- 
jected to any process by which it is melted, clarified or refined and 
made to resemble genuine butter, always excepting "adulterated but- 
ter" as defined by this Act, 



Dairy Laws ^11 

That special taxes are imposed as follows: 

Manufacturers of process or renovated butter shall pay fifty dol- 
lars per year and manufacturers of adulterated butter shall pay six 
hundred dollars per year. Every person who engages in the production 
of process or renovated butter or adulterated butter as a business shall 
be considered to be a manufacturer thereof. 

Wholesale dealers in adulterated butter shall pay a tax of foiir hun- 
dred and eighty dollars per annum, and retail dealers in adulterated 
butter shall pay a tax of forty-eight dollars per annum. Every person 
who sells adulterated butter in less quantities than ten pounds at one 
time shall be regarded as a retail dealer in adulterated butter. 

Every person who sells adulterated butter shall be regarded as a 
dealer in adulterated butter. And sections thirty-two hundred and 
thirty-two, thirty-two hundred and thirty-three, thirty-two hundred 
and thirty-four, thirty-two hundred and thirty-five, thirty-two hundred 
and thirty-six, thirty-two hundred and thirty-seven, thirty-two hun- 
dred and thirty-eight, thirty-two hundred and thirty-nine, thirty-two 
hundred and forty, thirty-two hundred and forty-one, and thirty-two 
hundred and forty-three of the Revised Statutes of the United States 
are, so far as applicable, made to extend to and include and apply to 
the special taxes imposed by this section and to the person upon whom 
they are imposed. 

That every person who carries on the business of a manufacturer 
of process or renovated butter or adulterated butter without having 
paid the special tax therefor, as required by law, shall, besides being 
liable to the payment of the tax, be fined not less than one thousand 
and not more than five thousand dollars; and every person who carries 
on the business of a dealer in adulterated butter without having paid 
the special tax therefor, as required by law, shall, besides being liable 
to the payment of the tax, be fined not less than fifty nor more than five 
hundred dollars for each offense. 

That every manufacturer of process or renovated butter or adul- 
terated butter shall file with the collector of internal revenue of the 
district in which his manufactory is located such notices, inventories, 
and bonds, shall keep such books and render such returns of material 
and products, shall put up such signs and affix such number of his 
factory, and conduct his business under such surveillance of officers 
and agents as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval 
of the Secretary of the Treasury, may by regulation require. But the 
bond required of such manufacturer shall be with sureties satisfactory 
to the collector of internal revenue, and in a penal sum of not less than 



378 Milk and Its Products 

five hundred dollars; and the sum of said bond may be increased from 
time to time and additional sureties required at the discretion of the 
collector or under instructions of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, 

That all adulterated butter shall be packed by the manufacturer 
thereof in firkins, tubs, or other wooden packages not before used for 
that purpose, each containing not less than ten pounds, and marked, 
stamped, and branded as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with 
the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, shall prescribe; and all 
sales made by manufacturers of adulterated butter shall be in original 
stamped packages. 

Dealers in adulterated butter must sell only original or from original 
stamped packages, and when such original stamped packages are 
broken the adulterated butter sold from same shall be placed in suitable 
wooden or paper packages, which shall be marked and branded as the 
Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary 
of the Treasury, shall prescribe. Every person who knowingly sells 
or offers for sale, or delivers or offers to deliver, any adulterated butter 
in any other form than in new wooden or paper packages as above 
described, or who packs in any package any adulterated butter in any 
manner contrary to law, or who falsely brands any package or affixes 
a stamp on any package denoting a less amount of tax than that 
required by law, shall be fined for each offense not more than one thous- 
and dollars and be imprisoned not more than two years. 

That every manufacturer of adulterated butter shall securely affix, 
by pasting, on each package containing adulterated butter manufac- 
tured by him a label on which shall be printed, besides the number of 
the manufactory and the district and State in which it is situated, these 
words: "Notice. — That the manufacturer of the adulterated butter 
herein contained has complied with all the requirements of law. Every 
person is cautioned not to use either this package again or the stamp 
thereon, nor to remove the contents of this package without destroying 
said stamp, under the penalty provided by law in such cases." Every 
manufacturer of adulterated butter who neglects to affix such label 
to any package containing adulterated butter made by him, or sold or 
offered for sale for or by him, and every person who removes any such 
label so affixed from any such package shall be fined fifty dollars for 
each package in respect to which such offense is committed. 

That upon adulterated butter, when manufactured or sold or 
removed for consumption or use, there shall be assessed and collected 
a tax of ten cents per pound, to be paid by the manufacturer thereof, 
and any fractional part of a pound shall be taxed as a pound, and that 



Dairy Laws 379 

upon process or renovated butter, when manufactured or sold or 
removed for consumption or use, there shall be assessed and collected 
a tax of one-fourth of one. cent per pound to be paid by the manufac- 
turer thereof, and any fractional part of a pound shall be taxed as a 
pound. The tax to be levied by this section, shall be represented by 
coupon stamps, and the provisions of existing laws governing engrav- 
ing, issuing, sale, accountability, effacement, and destruction of stamps 
relating to tobacco and snuff, as far as applicable, are hereby made to 
apply to the stamps provided by this section. 

That the provisions of sections nine, ten, eleven, twelve, thirteen, 
fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, nineteen, twenty, and 
twenty-one of "An Act defining butter, also imposing a tax upon and 
regulating the manufacture, sale, importation, and exportation of 
oleomargarine," approved August second, eighteen hundred and eighty- 
six, shall apply to manufacturers of "adulterated butter" to an extent 
necessary to enforce the marking, branding, identification, and regu- 
lation of the exportation and importation of adulterated butter. 

Skc. 5, Act of May 9, 1902: . 

All parts of an act providing for an inspection of meats for exporta- 
tion, approved August thirtieth, eighteen hundred and ninety, and of 
an act to provide for the inspection of live cattle, hogs, and the car- 
casses and products thereof which are the subjects on interstate com- 
merce, approved March third, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, and 
of amendment thereto approved March second, eighteen hundred and 
ninety-five, which are applicable to the subjects and purposes described 
in this section shall apply to process or renovated butter. And the 
Secretary of Agriculture is hereby authorized and required to cause a 
rigid sanitary inspection to be made, at such times as he may deem 
proper or necessary, of all factories and storehouses where process or 
renovated butter is manufactured, packed, or prepared for market, and 
of the products thereof and materials going into the manufacture of 
same. All process or renovated butter and the packages containing 
the same shall be marked with the words "Renovated Butter" or "Pro- 
cess Butter" and by such other marks, labels, or brands and in such 
manner as may be prescribed by the Secretary of Agriculture, and no 
process or renovated butter shall be shipped or transported from its 
place of manufacture into any other State or Territory or the District 
of Columbia, or to any foreign country, until it has been marked as 
provided in this section. The Secretary of Agriculture shall make all 
needful regulations for carrying this section into effect, and shall cause 
to be ascertained and reported from time to time the quantity and 



380 Milk and Its Products 

quality of process or renovated butter manufactured, and the charac- 
ter and the condition of the material from which it is made. And he 
shall also have power to ascertain whether or not materials used in the 
manufacture of said process or renovated butter are deleterious to 
health or unwholesome in the finished product, and in case such delete- 
rious or unwholesome materials are found to be used in product intended 
for exportation or shipment into other States or in course of exporta- 
tion or shipment he shall have power to confiscate the same. Any per- 
son, firm, or corporation violating any of the provisions of this section 
shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor and on conviction thereof 
shall be punished by a fine of not less than fifty dollars nor more than 
five hundred dollars or by imprisonment not less than one month nor 
more than six months, or by both said punishments, in the discretion 
of the court. 

Sec. 6, Act of May 9, 1902: 

That wholesale dealers in oleomargarine, process, renovated, or 
adulterated butter shall keep such books and render such returns in 
relation thereto as the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the 
approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, may, by regulation, require; 
and such books shall be open at all times to the inspection of any inter- 
nal revenue officer or agent. And any person who willfully violates any 
of the provisions of this section shall for each such offense be fined not 
less than fifty dollars and not exceeding five hundred dollars, and 
imprisoned not less than thirty days nor more than six months. 

Sec. 7, Act of May 9, 1902: 

This act shall take effect on the first day of July, nineteen hun- 
dred and two. 



Oleomargarine law constitutional. — Supreme Court decision in McCray vs. United 
States. Decided May 31, 1904. 

The law, act May 9, 1902, imposing a tax of 10 cents a pound on 
oleomargarine artificially coloied in imitation of butter and one-fourth 
of 1 cent per pound on uncolored oleomargarine is constitutional. The 
courts can not hold a tax void because it is deemed too high. Although 
the effect of the tax in question may be to repress the manufacture of 
artificially colored oleomargarine, it is not on that account a violation 
of fundamental rights. An act of Congress exerting the taxing power 
can not be avoided on the ground that it is an abuse of power. Whilst 
the statute recognized the right of a manufacturer to use any or all of 
the authorized ingredients so as to make oleomargarine, and also author- 



Dairy Laws 381 

ized as one of the ingredients butter artificially colored, if the manu- 
facturer elected to use such ingredient last mentioned, and thereby 
gave to his manufactured product artificial coloration, such product so 
colored, although being oleomargarine, was not within the exception 
created by the proviso, and therefore came under the general rule sub- 
jecting oleomargarine to the tax of ten cents a pound. (Vol. 7, Treas. 
Dec. (1904), Decision No. 795. Supreme Court of the United States. 
No. 301. October Term, 1903. Leo W, McCray, plaintiff in error, vs. 
United States.) 

Oleomargarine. — Opinion of Supreme Court in the palm-oil case. — Supreme 
Court of the United States. — No. 19 — October term. 1904. — August Cliflf, 
plaintiff in error, vs. United States, October 24, 1904. 

One of the purposes of the oleomargarine legislation was to prevent 
the sale of oleomargarine as and for butter. When any substance, 
although named as a possible ingredient of oleomargarine, serves only 
the function of coloring the mass so as to cause it to "look like butter 
of any shade of yellow," it is an artificial coloration, and the product 
is subject to a tax of 10 cents per pound. (Treas. Dec. Nos. 615, 839.) 

Regulations prescribed by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, 
with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, in regard to marks 
and brands on packages of oleomargarine, are authorized by law. They 
are matters of detail confided to the Executive branch, the authority 
to make which is within the competency of the legislative branch to 
confer. Courts will take judicial notice of them. (Joseph Wilkins vs. 
United States (1899), 96 Fed. Rep., 837; Vol. 2, Treas. Dec, No. 21623.) 

Such power delegated to the Commissioner, with approval of the 
Secretary, involves no unconstitutional delegation of power (1897). 
{In re KoUock, 165 U. S., 526, 43 Int. Rev. Rec, 170; Prather vs. United 
States, 9 Appeal Cases, D. C, 82.) 

Taxes imposed by the oleomargarine law as amended. 

SPECIAL, TAXES 

Manvif acturers of oleomargarine $600 

Wholesale dealers in oleomargarine colored artificially to look like butter.. . . 480 

Wholesale dealers in oleomargarine not artificially colored only 200 

Retail dealers in oleomargarine colored artificially to look like butter 48 

Retail dealers in oleomargarine not artificially colored only 6 

Manufacturers of adulterated butter 600 

Wholesale dealers in adulterated butter 480 

Retail dealers in adulterated butter 48 

Manufacturers of process or renovated butter 50 



382 Milk and Its Products 



TAXES ON PRODUCT 

Oleomargarine (artificially colored), 10 cents per pound. 
Oleomargarine fnot artificially colored), \ cent per pound. 
Adulterated butter, 10 cents per pound. 
Process or renovated butter, \ cent per pound. 

THE FILLED CHEESE LAW 

AN ACT defining cheese, and also imposing a tax upon and regulating the manu- 
facture, sale, importation and exportation of "filled cheese." 

Be it enacted by the Sen te and House of Representatives of the United 
States of America in Congress assembled, That for the purposes of this 
act, the word "cheese" shall be understood to mean the food product 
known as cheese, and which is made from milk or cream, and without 
the addition of butter, or any animal, vegetable, or other oils or fats 
foreign to such milk or cream, with or without additional coloring 
matter. 

Section 2. That for the purposes of this act certain substances 
and compounds shall be known and designated as "filled cheese," 
namely: All substances made of milk or skimmed milk, with the admix- 
ture of butter, animal oils or fats, vegetable or any other oils, or com- 
pounds foreign to such milk, and made in imitation or semblance of 
cheese. 

Sec. 3. That special taxes are imposed as follows: 

Manufacturers of filled cheese shall pay four hundred dollars for 
each and every factory per annum. Every person, firm, or corpora- 
tion who manufactures filled cheese for sale shall be deemed a manu- 
facturer of filled cheese. Wholesale dealers in filled cheese shall pay 
two hundred and fifty dollars per annum. Every person, firm, or cor- 
poration who sells, or offers for sale filled cheese in the original manu- 
facturer's packages for resale, or to retail dealers as hereinafter defined, 
shall be deemed a wholesale dealer in filled cheese. But any manu- 
facturer of filled cheese who has given the required bond and paid 
the required special tax, and who sells only filled cheese of his own pro- 
duction, at the place of manufacture, in the original packages, to which 
the tax-paid stamps are affixed, shall not be required to pay the special 
tax of a wholesale dealer in filled cheese on account of such sales. 

Retail dealers in filled cheese shall pay twelve dollars per annum. 
Every person who sells filled cheese at retail, not for resale, and for 
actual consumption, shall be regarded as a retail dealer in filled cheese, 
and sections thirty-two hundred and thirty-two, thirty-two hun- 



Dairy Laws 383 

dred and thirty-three, thirty-two hundred and thirty-four, thirty- 
two hundred and thirty-five, thirty-two hundred and thirty-six, thirty- 
two hundred and thirty -seven, thirty-two hundred and thirty-eight, 
thirty-two hundred and thirty-nine, thirty-two hundred and forty, 
thirty-two hundred and forty-one, thirty-two hundred and forty-three 
of the Revised Statutes of the United States are, so far as appUcable, 
made to extend to and include and apply to the special taxes imposed 
by this section and to the persons, firms, or corporations upon whom 
they are imposed: Provided, That all special taxes under this act shall 
become due on the first day of July in every year, or on commencing 
any manufacture, trade, or business on which said tax is imposed. 
In the latter case the tax shall be reckoned proportionately from the 
first day of the month in which the liability to the special tax com- 
mences to the first day of July following. 

Sec. 4. That every person, firm, or corporation who carries on the 
business of a manufacturer of filled cheese without having paid the 
special tax therefor, as required by law, shall, besides being liable to 
the payment of the tax, be fined not less than four hundred dollars 
and not more than three thousand dollars; and every person, firm, or 
corporation who carries on the business of a wholesale dealer in filled 
cheese without having paid the special tax therefor, as required by 
law, shall, besides being liable to the payment of the tax, be fined not 
less than two hundred and fifty dollars, nor more than one thousand 
dollars; and every person, firm, or corporation, who carries on the 
business of a retail dealer in filled cheese without having paid the spe- 
cial tax therefor, as required by law, shall, besides being liable for the 
payment of the tax, be fined not less than forty nor more than five 
hundred dollars for each and every offense. 

Sec. 5. That every manufacturer of filled cheese shall file with 
the collector of internal revenue of the district in which his manu- 
factory is located such notices, inventories, and bonds, shall keep 
such books and render such returns of materials and products, shall 
put up such signs and affix such number to his factory, and conduct 
his busine^ under such surveillance of officers and agents as the Com- 
missioner of Internal Revenue, with the approval of the Secretary 
of the Treasury, may by regulation require. But the bond required of 
such manufacturer shall be with sureties satisfactory to the collector 
of internal revenue, and in a penal sum of not less than five thousand 
dollars; and the amount of said bond may be increased from time to 
time, and additional sureties required, at the discretion of the collector 
or under instructions of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue. Any 



384 Mill' and Its Products 

manufacturer of filled cheese who fails to comply with the provisions 
of this section, or with the regulations herein authorized, shall be 
deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall be 
fined not less than five hundred nor more than one thousand dollars. 

Sec. 6. That filled cheese shall be packed bj' the manufacturers 
in wooden packages only, not before used for that purpose, and 
marked, stamped, and branded with the words "filled cheese," in 
black-faced letters not less than two inches in length, in a circle in 
the center of the top and bottom of the cheese; and in black-faced 
letters of not less than two inches in length in line from the top to the 
bottom of the cheese, on the side in four places equidistant from each 
other; and the package containing such cheese shall be marked in the 
same manner and in the same number of places, and in the same 
description of letters as above provided for the marking of the cheese; 
and all sales or consignments made by manufacturers of filled cheese 
to wholesale dealers in filled cheese or to exporters of filled cheese 
shall be in original stamped packages. Retail dealers in filled cheese 
shall sell only from original stamped packages, and shall pack the filled 
cheese, when sold, in suitable wooden or paper packages which shall 
be marked and branded in accordance with the rules and regulations 
to be prescribed by the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the 
approval of the Secretary of the Treasury. Every person who know- 
ingly sells or offers to sell, or delivers or offers to deliver, filled cheese 
in any other form than in new wooden or paper packages, marked and 
branded as hereinbefore provided and as above described, or who packs 
in any package or packages filled cheese in any manner contrary to law, 
or who falsely brands any package or affixes a stamp on any package 
denoting a less amount of tax than that required bj^ law, shall upon 
conviction thereof be fined for each and every offense not less than 
fifty dollars and not more than five hundred dollars, or be imprisoned 
not less than thirty days nor more than one year. 

Sec. 7. That all retail and wholesale dealers in filled cheese shall 
display in a conspicuous place in his or their salesroom a sign bear- 
ing the words, "Filled cheese sold here" in black-faced letters not less 
than six inches in length, upon a white ground, with the name and 
number of the revenue district in which his or their business is con- 
ducted; and any wholesale or retail dealer in filled cheese who fails 
or neglects to comply with the provisions of this section shall be deemed 
guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall on conviction thereof be fined for 
each and every offense not less than fifty dollars and not more than 
two hundred dollars. 



Dairy Laws 385 

Sec. 8. That every manufacturer of filled cheese shall securely 
affix, by pasting on each package containing filled cheese manufac- 
tured by him, a label on which shall be printed, besides the number 
of the manufactory and the district and state in which it is situated, 
these words: "Notice. — The manufacturer of the filled cheese herein 
contained has complied with all the requirements of the law. Every 
person is cautioned not to use either this package again or the stamp 
thereon again, nor to remove the contents of this package without 
destroying said stamp, under the penalty provided by law in such 
cases." Every manufacturer of filled cheese who neglects to affix such 
label to any package containing filled cheese made by him or sold or 
offered for sale by or for him, and every person who removes any such 
label so affixed from any such package, shall be fined fifty dollars for 
each package in respect to which such offense is committed. 

Sec. 9. That upon all filled cheese which shall be manufactured 
there shall be assessed and collected a tax of one cent per pound, to 
be paid by the manufacturer thereof; and any fractional part of a pound 
in a package shall be taxed as a pound. The tax levied by this sec- 
tion shall be represented by coupon stamps; and the provisions of 
existing laws governing the engraving, issue, sale, accountability, 
effacement, and destruction of stamps relating to tobacco and snuff, 
as far as applicable, are hereby made to apply to stamps provided 
for by this section. 

Sec. 10. That whenever any manufacturer of filled cheese sells 
or removes for sale or consumption any filled cheese upon which the 
tax is required to be paid by stamps, without paying such tax, it shall 
be the duty of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, within a period 
of not more than two years after such sale or removal, upon satis- 
factory proof, to estimate the amount of tax which has. been omitted 
to be paid and to make an assessment therefor and certify the same to 
the collector. The tax so assessed shall be in addition to the penalties 
imposed by law for such sale or removal. 

Sec. 11. That all filled cheese, as herein defined, imported from 
foreign countries shall, in addition to any import duty imposed on the 
same, pay an internal revenue tax of eight cents per pound, such tax 
to be represented by coupon stamps; and such imported filled cheese 
and the packages containing the same shall be stamped, marked, and 
branded, as in the case of filled cheese manufactured in the United 
States. 

Sec. 12. That any person who knowingly purchases or receives 
for sale any filled cheese which has not been branded or stamped 



386 Milh and Its Prodticts 

according to law, (or which is contained in packages not branded 
or marked according to law, shall be liable to a penalty of fifty 
dollars for each such offense. 

Sec. 13. That every person who knowingly purchases or receives 
for sale any filled cheese from any manufacturer or importer who has 
not paid the special tax herein provided for shall be liable, for each 
offense, to a penalty of one hundred dollars, and to a forfeiture of all 
articles so purchased or received, or of the full value thereof. 

Sec. 14. That whenever any stamped package containing filled 
cheese is emptied it shall be the duty of the person in whose hands 
the same is to destroy the stamps thereon; and any person who will- 
fully neglects or refuses so to do shall, for each such offense, be fined 
not exceeding fifty dollars or imprisoned not less than ten days nor 
more than six months. 

Sec. 15. That the Commissioner of Internal Revenue is author- 
ized to have applied scientific tests, and to decide whether any sub- 
stances used in the manufacture of filled cheese contain ingredients 
deleterious to health. But in case of doubt or contest, his decision in 
this class of cases may be appealed from to a board hereby constituted 
for the purpose, and composed of the Surgeon-General of the Army, 
the Surgeon-General of the Navy, and the Secretary of Agriculture, 
and the decision of this board shall be final in the premises. 

Sec. 16. That all packages of filled cheese subject to tax under 
this act that shall be found without stamps or marks as herein pro- 
vided, and all filled cheese intended for human consumption which 
contains ingredients adjudged as hereinbefore provided to be delete- 
rious to the public health, shall be forfeited to the United States. 

Sec. 17. That all fines, penalties and forfeitures imposed by this 
act may be recovered in any court of competent jurisdiction. 

Sec. 18. That the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, with the 
approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, shall make all needful regu- 
lations for the carrying into effect the provisions of this act. 

Sec. 19. That this act shall go into effect on the ninetieth day 
after its passage, and all wooden packages containing ten or more 
pounds of filled cheese found on the premises of any dealer on 
and after the ninetieth day succeeding the date of the passage of this 
act, shall be deemed to be taxable under section nine of this act, and 
shall be taxed, and shall have affixed thereto the stamps, marks, and 
brands required by this act or by regulations made pursuant to this 
act; and for the purpose of securing the affixing of the stamps, marks, 
and brands required by this act, the filled cheese shall be regarded as 



Dairy Laws 387 

having been manufactured and sold or removed from the manufac- 
tory for consumption or use on or after the day this act takes effect; 
and such stock on hand at the time of the taking effect of this act may 
be stamped, marked, and branded under special regulations of the Com- 
missioner of Internal Revenue, approved by the Secretary of the Treas- 
ury; and the Commissioner of Internal Revenue may authorize the 
holder of such packages to mark and brand the same and to affix thereto 
the proper tax-paid stamps. 
Approved June 6, 1896. 



THE NEW YORK LAW 

The law of the state of New York is typical of the state laws gov- 
erning the manufacture, sale, and adulteration of dairy products. It 
forms Chapter I. of the Consolidated Laws; the latter being Chapter 
IX. of the Laws of 1909, passed February 17, 1909, and is as follows: 

Article III 
Dairy Products. 

Sec, 30. Definitions. — The term "butter" when used in this article 
means the product of the dairy, usually known by that term, which 
is manufactured exclusively from pure, unadulterated milk or cream 
or both with or without salt or coloring matter; and the term "cheese" 
when used in this article, means the product of the dairy usually known 
by that term, which is manufactured exclusively from pure, unadul- 
terated milk or cream, or both, and with or without coloring matter, 
salt, rennet, sage, olives, pimentos, walnuts, peanuts, tomatoes, celery 
salt or onions added thereto as a flavor. And provided further, that 
when manufactured by adding to the elemental product of the dairy, 
usually known by the term "cheese," and manufactured exclusively 
from pure unadulterated milk or cream or both, any pimentos, olives, 
walnuts, peanuts, celery salt, tomatoes, or onions, that the percentage 
of all such substances so added shall not exceed twenty-five per centum 
in bulk of the manufactured product. 

The terms "oleomargarine," "butterine," "imitation of butter" 
or "imitation cheese" shall be construed to mean any article or sub- 
stance in the semblance of butter or cheese not the usual product of 
the dairy and not made exclusively of pure or unadulterated milk or 



388 Milk and Its Products 

cream, or any such article or substance into which any oil, lard or fat 
not produced from milk or cream enters as a component part, or into 
which melted butter or butter in any condition or state, or any oil 
thereof has been introduced to take the place of cream. The term 
"adulterated milk" when so used means: 

1. Milk containing more than eighty- eight and one-haK per 
centum of water or fluids. 

2. Milk containing less than eleven and one-half per centum of 
milk solids. 

3. Milk containing less than three per centum of fats. 

4. Milk drawn from cows within fifteen days before and five days 
after parturition. 

5. Milk drawn from animals fed on distillery waste or any sub- 
stance in a state of fermentation or putrefaction or on any unhealthy 
food. 

6. Milk drawn from cows kept in a crowded or unhealthy con- 
dition. 

7. Milk from which any part of the cream has been removed. 

8. Milk which has been diluted with water or any other fluid, or 
to which has been added or into which has been introduced any foreign 
substance whatever. 

All adulterated milk shall be deemed unclean, unhealthy, impure 
and unwholesome. The terms "pure milk" or "unadulterated milk," 
when used singly or together, mean sweet milk not adulterated, and the 
terms "pure cream" or "unadulterated cream," when used singly or 
together, mean cream taken from pure and unadulterated milk. The 
term "adulterated cream" when used shall mean cream containing less 
than eighteen per centum of milk fat or cream to which any substance 
whatsoever has been added. 

Sec. 31. Care and feed of cows, and care and keeping of the produce 
from such cows. — No person shall keep cows, for the production of 
milk for market or for sale or exchange, or for manufacturing the milk 
or cream from the same into any article of food, in a crowded or 
unhealthy condition or in unhealthful or unsanitary surroundings and 
no person shall keep such cows or the product therefrom in such con- 
dition or surroundings or in such places as shall cause or tend to cause 
the produce from such cows to be in an unclean, unhealthful or dis- 
eased condition, if the produce from such cows is to be sold, offered or 
exposed for sale upon the markets for consumption or to be manu- 
factured into any food product, nor shall such cows or the produce 
therefrom be handled or cared for by any person suffering with or 



Dairy Laws 389 

affected by an infectious or contagious disease, nor shall any such cows 
be fed on any substance that is in a state of putrefaction or fermenta- 
tion, or upon any food that is unhealthful or that produces or may 
produce impure, unhealthful, diseased or unwholesome milk. But 
this section shall not be construed to prohibit the feeding of ensilage. 
The Commissioner of Agriculture is hereby empowered to give such 
instruction and impart such information as in his judgment may be 
deemed best to produce a full observance of the provisions of this sec- 
tion. 

Sec. 32. Prohibiting the sale of adulterated milk, imitation cream, and 
regulating the sale of certified milk. — No person shall sell or exchange 
or offer or expose for sale or exchange, any unclean, impure, unhealthy, 
adulterated or unwholesome milk or any cream from the same, or any 
unclean, impure, unhealthy, adulterated, colored, or unwholesome 
cream, or sell or exchange, or offer or expose for sale or exchange, any 
substance in imitation or semblance of cream, which is not cream, nor 
shall he sell or exchange, or offer or expose for sale or exchange any 
such substance as and for cream, or sell or exchange, or offer ar expose 
for sale or exchange any article of food made from such milk or cream 
or manufacture from any such milk or cream any article of food. No 
person shall sell or exchange, or offer or expose for sale or exchange, as 
and for certified milk, any milk which does not conform to the regu- 
lations prescribed by and bear the certification of a milk commission 
appointed by a county medical society organized under and chartered 
by the medical society of the state of New York and which has not 
been pronounced by such authority to be free from antiseptics, added 
preservatives, and pathogenic bacteria, or bacteria in excessive numbers. 
All mUk sold as certified milk shall be conspicuously marked with the 
name of the commission certifying it. Any person delivering milk to 
any butter or cheese factory, condensary, milk-gathering station or 
railway station to be shipped to any city, town or village shall be 
deemed to expose or offer the same for sale whether the said mUk is 
delivered or consigned to himself or another. Each and every can 
thus delivered, shipped or consigned, if it be not pure milk, must bear 
a label or card upon which shall be stated the constituents or ingredi- 
ents of the contents of the can. 

Sec. 33. Regulations in regard to butter and cheese factories. — No 
person shall sell, supply or bring to be manufactured to any butter 
or cheese factory any milk diluted with water, or any unclean, impure, 
unhealthy, adulterated or unwholesome milk, or milk from which any 
of the cream has been taken, except pure skim milk to skim-cheese 



390 Milk and Its Products 

factories. No person shall sell, supply or bring to be manufactured to 
any butter or cheese factory any milk from which there has been kept 
back any part of the milk commonly known as strippings, or any milk 
that is sour, except pure skim milk to skim-cheese factories. The owner 
or proprietor or the person having charge of any butter or cheese fac- 
tory, not buying all the milk used by him, shall not use for his own 
benefit, or allow any of his employees or any other person to use for 
his own benefit, any milk, cream, butter or cheese or any other prod- 
uct thereof, brought to such factory, without the consent of the owners 
of such milk or the products thereof. Every butter or cheese manufac- 
turer not buying all the milk he uses, shall keep a correct account of 
all the milk daily received, of the number of packages of butter and 
cheese made each day, and the number of packages and aggregate 
weight of cheese and butter disposed of each day; which account shall 
be open to inspection to any person who delivers milk to such factory. 
Whenever manufacturers of butter or cheese purchase milk upon the 
basis of the amount of fat contained therein and use for ascertaining 
the amount of such fat what is known as the Babcock test, or when- 
ever the proceeds of co-operative creameries and cheese factories are 
allotted on the basis of determinations of milk fat by the Babcock test, 
the bottles and pipettes used in such test shall before use be examined 
by the director of the New York agricultural experiment station. If 
such bottles are found to be properly constructed and graded so as to 
accurately show the amount of fat contained in milk, each of them shall 
be legibly and indelibly marked "S. B." No bottle shall be so marked 
except as herein provided or used in any such test by such manufac- 
turers, unless so examined and marked. The acid used in making such 
test by such manufacturers shall be examined from time to time by 
competent chemists employed by the Commissioner of Agriculture and 
if found not to be of sufficient strength the use of such acid shall be 
prohibited. No person or persons receiving or purchasing milk or cream 
upon the basis of the amount of fat contained therein shall credit any 
patron or patrons delivering milk or cream thereto with a greater or 
less percentage or average percentage of fat than is actually contained 
in the milk or cream so delivered. The Commissioner, of Agriculture or 
persons employed by him for that purpose may at any time assist in 
making tests of milk received at a butter or cheese factory for the 
purpose of determining the efficiency of tests usually made at such 
factory. All persons using other than standard bottles or acid which is 
not of the required strength to accurately determine the amount of fats 
in milk or crediting any patron or patrons delivering milk or cream 



Dairy Laws 391 

with a greater or less percentage or average percentage of fat than is 
actually contained in the milk or cream so delivered, shall be subject 
to the penalties prescribed by Section fifty-two of this article, and 
shall be guilty of a misdemeanor. 

Sec. 34. Penalty for delivery of adulterated milk. — Any person, firm, 
association or corporation delivering any milk to any butter or cheese 
factory in violation of any of the provisions of this chapter shall forfeit 
and pay to the patrons, firm, association or corporation owning the 
milk delivered to such factory the sum of fifty dollars, to be recovered 
in a civil action by the person, firm, association or corporation entitled 
thereto. 

Sec. 35. Inspection; how conducted. — When the Commissioner of 
Agriculture, an assistant commissioner, or any person or officer author- 
ized by the commissioner, or by this chapter, to examine or inspect 
any product manufactured or offered for sale shall in discharge of his 
duties take samples of such product, he shall, before taking a sample, 
request the person delivering the milk or who has charge of it at the 
time of inspection, to thoroughly stir or mix the said milk before the 
sample is taken. If the person so in charge refuses to stir or mix the milk 
as requested, then the person so requesting shall himself so stir and 
mix the milk before taking the sample, and the defendant shall there- 
after be precluded from introducing evidence to show that the milk 
so taken was not a fair sample of the milk delivered, sold, offered or 
exposed for sale by him. The person taking the sample of milk for 
analysis shall take duplicate samples thereof in the presence of at least 
one witness, and he shall in the presence of such witness seal both of 
such samples, and shall tender, and, if accepted, deliver at the time of 
taking one sample to the manufactiu-er or vender of such product, or 
to the person having custody of the same, with a statement in writing 
of the cause of the taking of the sample. In taking samples of milk 
for analysis at a creamery, factory, platform or other place where the 
same is delivered by the producer for manufacture, sale or shipment, 
or from a milk vender who produces the milk which he sells, with a view 
of prosecuting the producer of such milk for delivering, selling or offer- 
ing for sale adulterated milk, the said Commissioner of Agriculture or 
assistant or his agent or agents shall within ten days thereafter, with 
the consent of the said producer, take a sample in a like manner of the 
mixed milk of the herd of cows from which the milk first sampled was 
drawn and shall deliver the duplicate sample to the said producer and 
shall cause the sample taken by himself or his agent to be analyzed.' If 
the sample of milk last taken by the Commissioner of Agriculture or 



392 Milk and Its Products 

his agent or agents shall upon analysis prove to contain no higher per- 
centage of milk solids, or no higher percentage of fat than the sample 
taken at the creamery, factory, platform or other place, then no action 
shall lie against the said producer for violation of subdivisions one, two, 
three, seven and eight of section thirty of this chapter. In taking a 
second sample as above set forth from the mixed milk of the herd, it 
shall be the duty of the Commissioner of Agriculture to have an assist- 
ant, agent or agents present during the entire time in which the said 
cattle are being milked to observe closely so as to be sure that the milk 
thus to be sampled is not adulterated and to see that it is thoroughly 
mixed so that the sample taken shall be a fair sample of the average 
quality of the mixed milk of the entire dairy or herd of cows of said 
producer. If, however, the said producer refuses to allow such examin- 
ation of the milk produced by his dairy, then he shall be precluded from 
offering any evidence whatever tending to show that the milk delivered 
by him at the said creamery, factory, platform or other place was just 
as it came from the cow. If the said producer does permit such exam- 
ination, the Commissioner of Agriculture shall, upon receiving appli- 
cation therefor, send to said producer a copy of the analysis of each 
of the samples of milk so taken and analyzed as above provided. If 
a sample of milk shall have been taken by the Commissioner of Agri- 
culture or by his orders or directions from any dairy within this state 
and an analysis thereof has been made by the Commissioner or by his 
authority, any person who is or was buying milk from the said dairy 
at or subsequent to the time of such taking, may apply to the Commis- 
sioner of Agriculture for a copy of the analysis of the said sample of 
milk so taken and the Commissioner shall thereafter furnish the said 
applicant with such copy. 

Sec. 36. Branded cans, jars or bottles not to be sold, re-marked or used 
without consent of owner. — No person shall hereafter without the con- 
sent of the owner or shipper, use, sell, dispose of, buy or traffic in any 
milk can, jar or bottle, or cream can, jar or bottle, belonging to any 
dealer or shipper of milk or cream residing in the state of New York 
or elsewhere, who may ship milk or cream to any city, town or place 
within this state, having the name or initials of the owner, dealer or 
shipper, stamped, marked or fastened on such can, jar or bottle, or 
wilfully mar, erase or change by re-marking or otherwise said name or 
initials of any such owner, dealer or shipper, so stamped, marked or 
fastened upon said can, jar or bottle. Nor shall any person without the 
consent of the owner use such can, jar or bottle, for any other purpose 
than for milk or cream: nor shall any person without the consent of 



Dairy Laws 393 

the owner place in any such can, jar or bottle', any substance or product 
other than milk or cream. 

Sec. 37. Regulations in regard to condensed milk. — No condensed 
milk shall be made or ofifered or exposed for sale or exchange unless 
manufactured from pure, clean, healthy, fresh, unadulterated and 
wholesome milk from which the cream has not been removed either 
wholly or in part, or unless the proportion of milk solids shall be in 
quantity the equivalent of eleven and one-half per centum of milk 
solids in crude milk, and of which solids twenty-five per centum shall 
be fats. No person shall manufacture, sell or offer for sale or exchange 
in hermetically sealed cans, any condensed milk unless put up in pack- 
ages upon which shall be distinctly labeled or stamped the name of the 
person or corporation by whom made and the brand by which or under 
which it is made. When condensed milk shall be sold from cans or 
packages not hermetically sealed, the producer shall brand or label the 
original cans or packages with the name of the manufacturer of the 
milk contained therein. 

Sec. 38. Manufacture and sale of imitation butter prohibited. — No 
person by himself, his agents or employees, shall produce or manufac- 
ture out of or from any animal fats or animal or vegetable oils not pro- 
duced from unadulterated milk or cream from the same, the article 
known as oleomargarine or any article or product in imitation or sem- 
blance of natural butter produced from pure, unadulterated milk or 
cream of the same; or mix, compound with or add to milk, cream or 
butter any acids or other deleterious substance or any animal fats or 
animal or vegetable oils not produced from milk or cream, so as to pro- 
duce any article or substance or any human food in imitation or in 
semblance of natural butter, nor sell, keep for sale or offer for sale any 
article, substance or compound, made, manufactured or produced in 
violation of the provisions of this section, whether such article, sub- 
stance or compound shall be made or produced in this state or else- 
where. Any person manufacturing, selling, offering or exposing for 
sale any commodity or substance in imitation or semblance of butter, 
the product of the dairy, shall be deemed guilty of a violation of this 
chapter, whether he sells such commodity or substance as butter, oleo- 
margarine or under any other name or designation whatsoever and 
irrespective of any representations he may make relative to such com- 
modity or substance. Any dealer in any article or product, the manu- 
facture or sale of which is prohibited by this section, who shall keep, 
store or display such article or product, with other merchandise or stock 
in his place of business, shall be deemed to have the same in his pos- 
session for sale. 



394 Milk and Its Products 

Sec. 39. Manufacture or mixing of animal fats with m,ilk, cream or 
butter prohibited. — No person shall manufacture, mix or compound with 
or add to natural milk, cream or butter any animal fats or animal or 
vegetable oils, nor make or manufacture any oleaginous substance not 
produced from milk or cream, with intent to sell the same as butter 
or cheese mad6 from unadulterated milk or cream or have the same in 
his possession with such intent; nor shall any person solicit or take 
orders for the same or offer the same for sale, nor shall any such article 
or substance or compound so made or produced, be sold as and for 
butter or cheese, the product of the dairy. No person shall coat, powder 
or color with annatto or any coloring matter whatever, butterine or 
oleomargarine or any compound of the same or any product or manu- 
facture made in whole or in part from animal fats or animal or vege- 
table oils not produced from unadulterated milk or cream by means of 
which such product, manufacture or compound shall resemble butter 
or cheese, the product of the dairy; nor shall he have the same in his 
possession with intent to sell the same nor shall he sell or offer to sell 
the same. No person hy himself, his agents or employees, shall manu- 
facture, sell, offer or expose for sale, butter that is produced by taking 
original packing stock or other butter or both and melting the same, so 
that the butter fat can be drawn off, then mixing the said butter fat 
with skimmed milk or milk or cream or other milk product and rechurn- 
ing the said mixture, or that is produced by any similar process and is 
commonly known as boiled or process butter, unless he shall plainly brand 
or mark the package or tub or wrapper in which the same is put up 
in a conspicuous place with the words "renovated butter" or "process 
butter." If the same shall be put up, sold, offered or exposed for sale 
in prints or rolls, then the said prints or rolls shall be labeled plainly 
with printed letters in a conspicuous place on the wrapper with the 
words "renovated butter" or "process butter." If the same is packed 
in tubs or boxes or pails or other kind of a case or package the words 
"renovated butter" or "process butter" shall be printed on the top and 
side of the same in letters, at least, one inch in length, so as to be plainly 
seen by the purchaser. If such butter is exposed for sale, uncovered, 
not in a package or case, a placard containing the label so printed shall 
be attached to the mass of butter in such manner as to easily be seen 
and read by the purchaser. Every person selling, offering or exposing 
for sale at retail, "renovated butter" or "process butter," shall cause 
each parcel or package of such butter delivered to or for a customer 
to be wrapped in a light-colored paper on which shall be printed in black 
letters, not less than three-eighths inch square and in Gothic type, the 



Dairy Laws 395 

words "renovated butter" or "process butter." No person shall sell, 
offer or expose for sale, any butter or other dairy products containing 
a preservative, but this shall not be construed to prohibit the use of 
salt in butter or cheese, or spirituotfs liquors in club or other fancy cheese 
or sugar in condensed milk. No person, firm, association or corpo- 
ration shall induce or attempt to induce any person to violate any of 
the provisions of this chapter. Any person, firm, association or cor- 
poration selling, offering or advertising for sale any substance, prepara- 
tion or matter for use in violation of the provisions of this chapter 
shall be guilty of a violation of this section. 

Sec. 40. Prohibited articles not to be furnished for use. — No keeper 
or proprietor of any bakery, hotel, boarding-house, restaurant, saloon, 
lunch-counter or place of public entertainment, nor any person having 
charge thereof or employed thereat, nor any person furnishing board 
for any others than members of his own family, or for any employee^ 
where such board is furnished for a compensation or as part of the com- 
pensation of any such employee, shall keep, use or serve therein either 
as food for his guests, boarders, patrons, customers or employees or for 
cooking purposes any article or substance made in violation of the pro- 
visions of this article. Any keeper or proprietor of any hotel, boarding- 
house, restaurant, saloon, lunch-counter or place of public entertain- 
ment who uses or serves therein for his guests any oleaginous substance 
as a substitute for butter, the manufacture or sale of which is not pro- 
hibited by the agricultural law, shall print plainly and conspicuously 
on the bill-of-fare, if there is one, the words, "Oleomargarine Used 
Here" and shall post up conspicuously in different parts of each room 
where such meals are served, signs in places where they can be easily 
seen and read, which shall bear the words, "Oleomargarine Used Here" 
in letters at least two inches in length and so printed as to be easily 
read by guests or boarders. 

Sec. 41. Coloring matter, dairy terms, size of package, labeling, pen- 
alties. — No person manufacturing with intent to sell any substance or 
article in imitation or semblance of butter or cheese not made exclu- 
sively from unadulterated milk or cream or both, with salt or rennet 
or both and with or without coloring matter or sage, but into which 
any animal, intestinal or offal fats, or any oils or fats or oleaginous sub- 
stance of any kind not produced from pure, unadulterated milk or 
cream, or into which melted butter, or butter in any condition or state 
or any modification of the same, or lard or tallow shall be introduced, 
shall add thereto or combine therewith any annatto or compounds of 
the same, or any other substance or substances whatever, for the pur- 



396 Milk and Its Products 

pose or with the effect of imparting thereto a color reserabling yellow, 
or any shade of yellow butter or cheese, nor introduce any such color- 
ing matter or other substance into any of the articles of which the same 
is composed. And no person selling any oleaginous substance not made 
from pure milk or cream of the same as a substitute for butter shall 
sell, give away or deliver with such substance any coloring matters 
nor shall any person manufacturing, selling or offering for sale any 
such goods make or sell them under any brand, device or label bearing 
words indicative of cows or the product of the dairy or the names of 
breeds of cows or cattle, nor use terms indicative of processes in the dairy 
in making or preparing butter; no such substance shall hereafter be 
sold, offered or exposed for sale in this state except it be sold in pack- 
ages containing not more than five pounds, such packages to be wrapped 
and sealed, the original seal of which shall be unbroken and upon which 
seal shall be plainly printed the name and address of the manufacturer 
of said oleoraargarine, and the said packages shall be plainly and con- 
spicuously labeled with the word "Oleomargarine" in Gothic or equally 
conspicuous letters at least three-eighths of an inch high. The word 
"Oleomargarine" in large prominent letters shall be stamped by inden- 
tation on each separate brick or portion of the substance itself before 
it is wrapped and sealed. 

Any person violating any of the provisions of sections forty or forty- 
one of the agricultural law shall forfeit and pay a penalty to the people 
of the state of New York of not less than fifty dollars nor more than 
one hundred dollars for the first violation and not less than two hun- 
dred dollars nor more than five hundred dollars for the second and 
each subsequent violation. Whoever by himself or another violates 
any of the provisions of sections forty or forty-one of the agricultural 
law shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction shall be 
punished by a fine of not less than one hundred dollars nor more than 
five hundred dollars or by imprisonment of not less than one month 
nor more than one year or by both such fine and imprisonment for the 
first offense and by not less than six months nor more than one year 
for the second offense. 

Sec. 42. Coloring matter in food products; analysis hy state board 
of health. — No person or persons shall manufacture, sell or expose for 
sale any poisonous coloring matter for the coloring of food products 
of any kind, nor shall any person or persons use any poisonous coloring 
matter manufactured, sold, offered or exposed for sale within this state; 
nor shall any person or persons sell, offer or expose for sale any food 
product containing such poisonous coloring matter. The state com- 



. Dairy Lcms 397 

missioner of health shall cause samples of coloring matter that are 
exposed for sale upon the market for use in food products to be analyzed 
and report the results of such analysis to the legislature at the next 
session. 

Sec. 43. Manufacture and sale of imitation cheese prohibited. — No 
person shall manufacture, deal in, sell, offer or expose for sale 
or exchange any article or substance, in the semblance of or in imita- 
tion of cheese made exclusively of unadulterated milk or cream, or both, 
into which any animal, intestinal or offal fats or oils, or melted butter 
or butter in any condition or state or modification of the same, or 
oleaginous substances of any kind not produced from unadulterated 
milk or cream, shall be introduced. 

Sec. 44. When prohibitions do not apply to skim milk or skim cheese. 
— Except in the counties of New York and Kings, the prohibitions con- 
tained in this article against the sale of adulterated milk shall not 
apply to skim milk, which is clean, pure, healthy, wholesome and 
unadulterated, except by skimming, sold for use in the county in which 
it is produced or an adjoining county, if it is sold for and as skimmed 
milk. The prohibitions in this article against the sale of cheese made 
from unadulterated* milk or cream, shall not apply to pure skim- 
cheese made from milk which is clean, pure, healthy, wholesome and 
unadulterated, except by skimming. 

Sec. 45. Unclean receptacles and places for keeping m,ilk; notice to 
violators of provisions. — No person, firm, association or corporation, 
producing, buying or receiving milk for the purpose of selling the same 
for consumption as such, or for manufacturing the same into butter, 
cheese, condensed milk, or other human food, shall keep the same in 
utensils, cans, vessels, rooms, or buildings that are unclean or have 
unsanitary surroundings or drainage or in any condition whatsoever 
that would tend to produce or promote conditions favorable to unhealth- 
fulness or disease. The Commissioner of Agriculture shall notify all 
persons, firms, associations or corporations, violating this section, to 
clean said utensils, cans, vessels, rooms or buildings, or to so improve 
the sanitary conditions that the law will not be violated, and if such 
notice is complied within ten days' time, Sundays excepted, then no 
action shall lie for a violation of this section. Any person having charge 
of any milk-gathering station where milk is bought or received from 
the dairymen for the purpose of selling the same for consumption or 
shipping the same to market for consumption as human food before 



*So in the original. 



398 Milk and Its Products 

taking such charge or operating or working as such agent or person in 
charge shall apply to the Commissioner of Agriculture for a license to so 
work or operate or have charge, and shall at the time of making such 
application, file with the Commissioner a statement under oath, setting 
forth the fact that he will not while having charge of or operating any 
such milk-gathering establishment or while employed therein adulter- 
ate or suffer or permit the adulteration of any such milk or any prod- 
uct thereof during the term for which he may be licensed. After the 
applicant shall have complied with the foregoing provisions of this 
section, the Commissioner of Agriculture upon being satisfied that the 
applicant is a person of good moral character and a qualified and proper 
person to so have charge of or operate any such milk-gathering station 
or establishment shall issue to said applicant a license, which shall 
qualify him to have charge of any such milk-gathering station or estab- 
lishment for the period of two years from the date of such license. The 
person regularly doing the work of receiving, caring for and shipping 
the milk at any station or establishment, or in case more than one 
person is so employed then the foreman in charge of such works shall 
be deemed to be a person in charge of such station or establishment 
within the meaning and purposes of this section. Such a license certifi- 
cate shall be kept at such station or establishment where the licensee 
is so employed and shall be open to the inspection of the representa- 
tives of the Department of Agriculture and the public. Any person 
having charge of any milk-gathering station or establishment as afore- 
said shall keep a true and correct monthly record of the receipts of milk 
or other dairy products received at such station or establishment, and 
also a true and correct monthly record of all sales or shipments of milk, 
cream or other dairy products shipped or sold from such station or 
establishment, and shall also keep a true and correct monthly record 
of the amount of skim milk produced in such station or establishment 
and of the disposition of said skim milk. Such record shall be preserved 
at such station or establishment for at least two years after the same 
shall have been made and such records shall at all times be open to 
the inspection of the Commissioner of Agriculture, his assistants or 
agents. When cream is sold or shipped from any such station or estab- 
lishment so selling or shipping milk for consumption as aforesaid, each 
original bottle or package of one quart or less of cream so shipped or 
sold shall bear a label securely attached to the side of such bottle or 
package on which shall be conspicuously printed the word "cream" 
in black letters of at least one-fourth of an inch in length or else the word 
"cream" shall be blown in the side of such bottle in plain raised letters 



Dairy Laws 399 

of at least one-half an inch in length, and the top and side of each and 
every other original package or can containing cream or original crate 
or case containing bottles of cream so shipped or sold shall bear a label 
securely attached on which shall be conspicuously printed the word 
"cream" in black letters of at least one inch in length and also a plainly 
written or printed statement on the label stating from whom and what 
station the same is shipped and the name of the consignee and point 
of destination and the date on which the cream therein was produced 
by such separation or skimming. The shipment of each and every 
such original package of cream so shipped and not so labeled as herein 
required shall constitute a separate violation. When cream is so sepa- 
rated' or skimmed from milk at any such station or establishment and the 
supply of milk on hand thereat at the time of the next regular daily 
shipment of milk therefrom, consisting of the total amount of milk in 
such shipment, together with that remaning on hand immediately 
after such shipment, is not thereby decreased or correspondingly less 
than the total quantity received during any period extending from some 
point of time before such skimming was done until the time of such 
shipment, together with the amount of milk on hand at the commence- 
ment of such period, and such decrease is not equal in amount to the 
quantity of milk that must have been used in so separating such cream 
in addition to the quantity otherwise there used or disposed of during 
such period, such fact is conclusive that skim milk or other foreign 
substance was added to such milk supply within such period and shall 
be presumptive evidence within the meaning of this section that the 
same was added to each can or vessel of milk in such shipment. When 
cream or skim milk is found to have been on the premises of any such 
station or establishment or is sold or shipped therefrom, such cream 
or skim milk so found or so sold or shipped therefrom shall be presumed 
to have been produced by separating or skimming at such station or 
establishment. In any action or proceeding relative to the adulte- 
ration of milk by removing cream therefrom or adding skim milk or 
other foreign substance thereto, it shall be presumed that when cream 
has been produced by so skimming or separating or butter has been 
manufactured, there was made at least five quarts of milk in the pro- 
duction of each quart of cream so produced and there was necessarily 
so produced thereby at least four quarts of skim milk to each quart of 
cream so produced, and that there was used at least nine quarts of milk 
in the production of each pound of butter so manufactured. If any 
such person so duly licensed shall thereafter refuse or neglect to keep 
and preserve full and complete records as herein required or shall refuse 



400 Milk and Its Products 

to exhibit such records to the Commissioner of Agriculture, his assistants 
or agents or shall violate any of the provisions of this section or any of 
the provisions of this chapter relative to milk or the products thereof 
he shall forfeit his license and shall be disqualified for a period of 
five years from being again licensed by the Commissioner of Agri- 
culture. 

Sec. 46. Unsanitary cans and receptacles condemned. — All cans, or 
receptacles used in the sale of milk, cream or curd for consumption, 
or in transporting or shipping the same to market or the delivery thereof 
to purchasers for consumption as human food, when found by the Com- 
missioner of Agriculture or his assistants or agents to be in unfit con- 
dition to be so used by reason of being worn out, badly rusted, or with 
rusted inside surface, or unclean or unsanitary or in such condition 
that they can not be rendered clean and sanitary by washing, and will 
tend to produce or promote in milk, cream or curd when contained 
therein, bad flavors, unclean or unwholesome conditions favorable to 
unhealthfulness or disease, shall be condemned by the Commissioner 
of Agriculture or his assistants or agents. Every such can or receptacle 
when so condemned shall be marked by a stamp, impression or device, 
designed by the Commissioner of Agriculture, showing that it has been 
so condemned, and when so condemned shall not thereafter be used by 
any person for the purpose of so selling, transporting or shipping milk, 
cream or curd. 

Sec. 47. Receptacles to he cleansed before returning; receptacles may 
he seized; evidence; violation; milk can inspectors. — Whenever any can 
or receptacle is used for transporting or conveying milk, cream or curd 
to market for the purpose of selling or furnishing the same for con- 
sumption as human food, which can or receptacle, when emptied, is 
returned or intended to be returned to the person so selling, furnish- 
ing or shipping such substance to be again thus used, or which is liable 
to continued use in so transporting, conveying, selling or shipping such 
substance as aforesaid, the consumer, dealer or consignee using, selling 
or receiving the milk, cream or curd from such can or receptacle, shall, 
before so returning such can or receptacle remove all substances for- 
eign to milk therefrom, by rinsing with water or otherwise. When any 
such milk, cream or curd is sold within any city of this State or shipped 
into any such city, the fact of such shipment or sale shall be prima 
facie evidence that the same was so shipped or sold for consumption 
as human food. When any such can or receptacle is returned or deliv- 
ered or shipped to any person or creamery so selling such substance 
within, or shipping the same into such city, it is deemed that such can 



Dairy Laws 401 

or receptacle is liable to such continued use in so selling or shipping 
such substance therein for consumption as human food within the 
meaning and purposes of this section and section forty-six. No person 
shall place or suffer to be placed in any such can or receptacle any 
sweepings, refuse, dirt, litter, garbage, filth or any other animal or vege- 
table substance, nor shall any such consignee or other person through 
himself, his agent or employee, bring or deliver to any person or rail- 
road or other conveyance any such can or receptacle for the purpose 
of such return, or any milk, cream or curd can or receptacle for the 
purpose of delivery or shipment to any person or creamery engaged in 
so selling or shipping such substances for consumption as human food, 
which can or receptacle contains such foreign substance or which has 
not been rinsed as herein provided. The word "curd" as used in this 
section and section forty-six applies to the substance otherwise known 
as "pot cheese" or "cottage cheese." Whenever any such can or recep- 
tacle is used, returned, delivered or shipped in violation of this section, 
or of section forty-six of this chapter, every such use, return, delivery 
or shipment of each such can or receptacle shall be deemed a separate 
violation thereof. Such cans or receptacles so used, returned, deliv- 
ered or shipped in violation of this section or of section forty-six may be 
seized by the Commissioner of Agriculture, his assistants or agents and 
held as evidence of such violation. For the proper enforcement of this 
section and section forty-six, the Commissioner of Agriculture may 
appoint two inilk can inspectors to be stationed chiefly in the city of 
New York who shall receive the usual compensation of other agents 
of the Department of Agriculture. 

Sec. 48. Manufacturer's brand of cheese. — Every manufacturer of 
whole-milk cheese may put a brand or label upon such cheese indi- 
cating "whole-milk cheese" and the date of the month and year when 
made; and no person shall use such a brand or label upon any cheese 
made from milk from which any of the cream has been taken. The 
Commissioner of Agriculture shall procure and issue to the cheese manu- 
facturers of the State, on proper application therefor, and under such 
regulations as to the custody and use thereof as he may prescribe, a 
uniform stencil brand or labels bearing a suitable device or motto, 
and the words, "New York State whole-milk cheese." Every such 
brand or label shall be used upon the outside of the cheese and shall 
bear a different number for each separate factory. The Commissioner 
shall keep a book, in which shall be registered the name, location and 
number of each manufactory using the brands or labels, and the name 
or names of the persons at each manufactory authorized to use the 



402 Milk and Its Products 

same. No such brand or labels shall be used upon any other than whole- 
milk cheese or packages containing the same. 

Sec. 49. Use of false brand prohibited. — No person shall offer, sell, 
or expose for sale, in any package, butter or cheese which is falsely 
branded or labeled. 

Sec. 50. County trade marks. — At a regular or special meeting of 
a county dairymen's association in any county of the State there may 
be adopted a county trade mark, by a majority of the members present 
and voting, to be used as a trade mark by a person manufacturing 
pure unadulterated butter or full-cream cheese in such county. The 
secretary of the association shall forthwith send to the Commissioner of 
Agriculture a copy of such trade mark, which copy he shall place on file 
in his office, noting thereupon the day and hour he received the same. 
But one county trade mark for butter and for cheese shall be placed 
on file for the same county. No association shall adopt any trade 
mark of any county already on file, or use that of any other county in 
the formation of a trade mark. 

Sec. 51. Object and intent of this article. — This article and each sec- 
tion thereof are declared to be enacted to prevent deception in the sale 
of dairy products, and to preserve the public health, which is endangered 
by the manufacture, sale and use of the articles or substances herein 
regulated or prohibited. 

Sec. 52. Penalties. — Every person violating any of the provisions 
of this chapter, shall forfeit to the people of the State of New York the 
sum of not less than fifty dollars nor more than one hundred dollars 
for the first violation and not less than one hundred dollars nor more 
than two hundred dollars for the second and each subsequent violation. 
When such ^dolation consists of the manufacture or production of any 
prohibited article, each day during which or any part of which such 
manufacture or production is carried on or continued, shall be deemed 
a separate violation. When the violation consists of the sale, or the 
offering or exposing for sale or exchange of any prohibited article or 
substance, the sale of each one of several packages shall constitute a 
separate violation, and each day on which any such article or substance 
is offered or exposed for feale or exchange shall constitute a separate 
violation. When the use of any such article or substance is prohibited, 
each day during which oi'^any part of which said article or substance 
is so used or furnished for use, shall constitute a separate violation, 
and the furnishing of the same for use to each person to whom the same 
may be furnished shall constitute a separate violation. Whoever by 
himself or another violates any of the provisions of articles three, four, 



Dairy Laws 403 

six, eight and nine or sections three hundred fourteen and three hun- 
dred fifteen of this chapter or of sections one hundred six, one hundred 
seven and one hundred eight of this chapter shall be guilty of a mis- 
demeanor, and upon conviction shall be punished by a fine of not less 
than fifty dollars, nor more than two hundred dollars, or by imprison- 
ment of not less than one month nor more than six months or by both 
such fine and imprisonment, for the first offense; and by six months' 
imprisonment for the second offense. 

Sec. 53. Butterine and sitnilar products not to be purchased by cer- 
tain institutions. — No money appropriated by law for maintenance and 
support in whole or in part of a State institution; nor money received 
by a charitable, benevolent, penal or reformatory institution from the 
State or from a county, city or town thereof appropriated by such 
county, city or town, for the maintenance or support in whole or in 
part of such institution; nor money belonging to or used for -the main- 
tenance or support of such institution, shall be expended for the pur- 
chase of, or in payment for, butterine, oleomargarine, lard, cheese, or 
articles or products in imitation or semblance of natural butter or cheese 
produced from pure unadulterated milk or cream from the same, which 
articles or products have been rendered or manufactured in whole or 
in part from animal fats, or animal or vegetable oils not produced from 
unadulterated milk or cream from the same. 

Sec. 54. Purchase, sale and use of butterine and similar products 
prohibited in certain institutions. — No officer, manager, superintendent 
or agent of an institution mentioned in section fifty-three of this chapter, 
shall purchase for the use of such institution articles or products, for 
the purchase of which the money appropriated by law, or by a county, 
city or town, is forbidden to be used by section fifty-three of this chap- 
ter, and no person shall sell to, or for the use of such institution, such 
articles or products. Nor shall such articles or products be used as 
articles of food or for cooking purposes in such institutions within this 
State. 



404 Milk mid Its Products 



D. BEFEBENCES TO AGBICULTUBAL EXPEBIMENT 
STATION BEPOBTS AND BULLETINS 

The following references will aid the student who desires to make 
a more thorough study of the subjects discussed. They are taken 
wholly from the literature of American agricultural investigations, 
and include only some of the more important articles. The Experi- 
ment Station Record and the Handbook of Experiment Station Work, 
both issued by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, contain many 
condensed results of dairy investigation. 

Chapter I 

Studies in Milk Secretion. Indiana Bull. No. 24, pp. 13-16. 
How is Milk Formed? Nevada Bull. No. 16, pp. 4-5. 
Elaboration of Milk. Ontario Kept, for 1893, pp. 165-166. 
Dividing Milkings. Indiana Bull. No. 24, pp. 10-13. 
Milking Two and Three Times per Day. Vermont Rept. for 1890, 
pp. 90-96. 

Chapter II 

The Composition of Milk. Ontario Bull. No. 39. 

The Mineral Ingredients of Milk. Maine Rept. for 1890, Part 
II., pp. 52-57. 

The Constitution' of MUk, and Some of the Conditions Which Affect 
the Separation of Cream. Wisconsin Bull. No. 18. 

Conditions Affecting the Consistency of Milk. Wisconsin Rept. 
for 1896, pp. 73-80. 

Chemistry of Dairy Products. Ontario Rept. for 1890, pp. 237-241. 

Milk Analysis. Connecticut Rept. for 1886, pp. 119-130. 

Investigations Relating to the Composition of Milk. Wisconsin 
Rept. for 1890, pp. 114-119. 

Fibrin in Milk. Wisconsin Rept. for 1893, pp. 143-145. 

Relation of Fat and Casein in Milk. Vermont Rept. for 1890, pp. 
97-100. 

The Composition, Creaming and Churning of Colostrum. Vermont 
Rept. for 1891, pp. 104-108. 

The Fat Globules of Milk. New York Rept. for 1885, pp. 266- 
275; Wisconsin Rept. for 1894, pp. 223-239; Ontario Rept. for 1885, 
pp. 127-130. 



References 405 

The Effects of Feed Upon the QuaHty of Milk. Iowa Bull. No. 14, 
pp. 123-142; New Hampshire Kept, for 1893, pp. 138-155, and Bull. 
No. 9; Bull. No. 16; Bull. No. 18; Bull. No. 20. 

Tests of Several Breeds of Dairy Cows. A Study of Dairy Prod- 
ucts. Maine Rept. for 1889, pp. 106-134. The test is continued in 
Rept. for 1890, Part II., pp. 17-42. 

Corn Silage for Milch Cows. New York (State) Bull. No. 97, New 
Series. 

Investigations of the Several Breeds of Dairy Cattle. New York 
(State) Reports for 1891, 1892, 1893, 1894. 

On the Effects of Feeding Fat to Cows. New York (Cornell) Bull. 
No. 92. 

Variations in Milk. Illinois Bull. No. 17, pp. 9-16, and Bull. No. 24. 

The Influence of Advancing Lactation upon the Production of But- 
ter and Cheese. New York (State) Rept. for 1891, pp. 369-389. 

Effects of Drouth upon Milk Production. New York (State) Bull. 
No. 105. New Series. 

Variations in Milk. Vermont Rept. for 1891, pp. 61-74. 

Variations in Quantity and Quality of Milk. Vermont Rept. for 
1892, pp. 90-119, and Bull. No. 38. 

The Composition of Milk as Affected by Methods of Milking. 
Wisconsin Rept. for 1889, pp. 44, 51, 61. 

Chapter IV 

Milk Tests. (Short, Lactoscope) . Illinois Bxill. No. 9, pp. 293-302. 

Investigation of Milk Tests. (Short, Parsons, Failyer and Willard, 
Cochran, Patrick), Illinois Bull. No. 10. 

Milk Tests: Methods of Testing Milk. (Patrick, Babcock, Beim- 
ling. Gravimetric.) Illinois Bull. No. 14, pp. 462-467. 

Methods of Testing Milk. (Short, Patrick, Cochran, Babcock, 
Beimling.) West Vhginia Bull. No. 13, pp. 41-63. 

Testing Milk. (Short, Patrick, Cochran, Babcock, Soxhlet, Beim- 
ling.) West Virginia Report for 1890, pp. 68-88. 

A New Volumetric Method for the Estimation of Fat in Milk, 
Skimmed Milk, Buttermilk and Cream. (Parsons.) New Hampshire 
Report for 1888, pp. 69- 83. 

Babcock and Beimling Tests. Ontario Report for 1891, pp. 183- 
184. 

Simple Methods of Determining Milk Fat. (Short, Cochran, Gravi- 
metric.) Pennsylvania Bull. No. 12. 



406 Milk and Its Products 

Comparative Test of Machines and Methods for the Determination 
of Fat in Milk. (Short, Beimling, Patrick, Babcock, Gravimetric.) 
Mississippi Bull. No. 15, pp. 5-16. 

A Description of Cochran's Method for the Determination of Fat 
in Milk, for the Use of Dairymen. New York (Cornell) Bull. No. 17. 

.Iowa Station Milk Test. (Patrick.) Iowa Bull. No. 8, pp. 295- 
316; No. 9, p. 355; No. 11, pp. 484-487. 

A New Method for Determining the Amount of Butter Fat in 
Milk. Mississippi Bull. No. 21, pp. 17-19. 

A New MUk Test. (Beimling.) Vermont Bull. No. 21. 

The Lactanalyt, A New Milk Tester. Vermont Report for 1894, 
pp. 161-162. 

A New Method of Milk Analysis (Short) for the Use of Dairy- 
men, and a Comparison of Its Results with Those Obtained by the 
Churn. Kansas Report for 1888, pp. 149-164. 

A Method for the Determination of Fat in Milk and Cream. (Par- 
sons.) New York (State) Bull. No. 19. New Series. 

Feser's Lactoscope and Fjord's Centrifugal Controller, described 
in Ontario Report for 1885, pp. 207-208. 

Testing Milk at Creameries. (Short.) Vermont Bull. No. 16. 

The Schoch and Bolender Test Churn. Wisconsin Report for 1884, 
pp. 23-25. 

Description of the Test Churn. Ontario Report for 1885, p. 201. 

The Oil Test for Cream. Wisconsin Bull. No. 12. 

A New Method for Determining Fat in MUk. (Short.) Wisconsin 
Bull. No. 16 and Report for 1888, pp. 124-136. 

The Babcock Milk Test was first described in Wisconsin Bull. 
No. 24 and Report for 1890, pp. 98-113. Improvements and modifi- 
cations are discussed in Bull. No. 31, pp. 3-16; Bull. No. 36, pp. 3-20; 
Bull. No. 52, Report for 1892, pp. 219-244; Report for 1893, pp. 116- 
121. Compared with the Gravimetric Method in Report for 1896, 
pp. 138-143. 

Elsewhere, the method has been described in Pennsylvania Bull. 
No. 33; Washington Bull. No. 18; New York (Cornell) Bull. No. 29, 
pp. 77-80; Colorado Bull. No. 20, pp. 3-10; North Carolina Bull. No. 
113, pp. 101-111; West Virginia Bull. No. 13, pp. 52-57; Ontario Bull. 
No. 61; Bull. No. 93, pp. 5-6; Connecticut Bull. No. 106, pp. 2-9; 
Bull. No. 108, pp. 5-11; Bull. No. 117, Report for 1894, pp. 209-244; 
Maine Bull. No. 3, Second Series; Bull. No. 4, Report for 1891, Part 
II., pp. 71-80; Michigan Bull. No. 127; IlHnois Bull. No. 27; North 
Dakota Bull. No. 22; Pennsylvania Report for 1895, Part II., pp. 



References 407 

90-100; Nevada Bull. No. 16, pp. 41-51; Mississippi Bull. No. 15, 
pp. 7-14. 

Milk Sampling. Delaware Bull. No. 31. 

Composite Milk Samples Tested for Butter Fat. Illinois Bull. 
No. 16, pp. 504-515. Continued in Bull. No. 18, pp. 27-28. 

The Composite Sample. Preservatives for Keeping Milk — Samples 
for Testing. Iowa Bull. No. 11, pp. 482-484. 

Composite Samples at the Creamery — Chromate Preservatives. 
Iowa Bull. No. 22, pp. 836-844. 

Detection of Adulterations in Milk, Wisconsin Bull. No. 31, pp. 
17-27; Bull. No. 36, pp. 21-31, and Report for 1892, pp. 245-257. 
Ontario Bull. No. 93, pp. 3-5; Vermont Newspaper Bull. No. 4. 

Lactometer and Milk Test for Examining Milk. Minnesota Bull. 
No. 27, pp. 55-56. 

The Relation between Specific Gravity and Solids of Milk. Wis- 
consin Report for 1895, pp. 120-126. 

The Estimation of the Total Solids in Milk from the Per Cent 
of Fat, and the Specific Gravity of the Milk. Wisconsin Report for 
1891, pp. 292-307, and Report for 1893, p. 142. 

The Lactometer and Fat Test for Cheese and Condensed Milk 
Factories. Maine Bull, No. 4, New Series, pp. 6-10. 

Chaptek V 

Dairy Bacteriology, U. S. Dept. Agr., Office of Expt. Stations. 
Bull. No. 25. 

The Fermentations of Milk. U. S. Dept. Agr. Expt. Stations. 
Bull. No. 9. 

Souring of Milk. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bull. No. 29. 

Milk FerrQentations and Their Relations to Dairying. U. S. Dept. 
Agr, Farmers' Bull. No. 9. 

Tlie Isolation of Rennet from Bacteria Cultures. Connecticut 
(Storrs) Report for 1892, pp. 106-126. 

The Sources of Bacterial Infection, and the Relation of the Same 
to the Keeping Quality of Milk. Wisconsin Report for 1894, pp. 150-165. 

Cleanliness in Handling Milk; Bacteriological Considerations. 
North Dakota Bull. No. 21. 

A Microccus of Bitter Milk. Connecticut (Storrs) Report for 
1891, pp. 158-162. 

Pasteurization of Milk and Cream for Direct Consumption. Wis- 
consin Bull. No. 44, 



408 MilJc and Its Products 

Ropiness in Milk and Cream. Cornell Univ. Expt. Sta. Bull. No. 165. 
Bacteriology of Cheese. Wisconsin Report for 1903, pp. 226-230. 
Action of Acid Producing Bacteria on Casein. Wisconsin Rept. for 

1904, pp. 169-171. 

Notes on Pasteurization of Milk and Cream. Wisconsin Rept. 
for 1895, pp. 158-173. 

On the Restoration of the Consistency of Pasteurized Milk and 
Cream. Wisconsin Rept. for 1896, pp. 81-94, and Bull. No. 54. 

A Preliminary Bulletin on Pasteurization of Milk. Michigan Bull. 
No. 134. 

Preservation of Cream for Market. Maine Bull. No. 23, New 
Series. 

Chapter VII 

Aeration and Aerators. New York (Cornell) Bull. No. 39, pp. 
90-94. 

Aeration of Milk. Vermont Rept. for 1892, pp. 123-128. 

Concerning the Aeration of Milk. Indiana Bull. No. 44, pp. 37-39. 

Town and City Milk Supply. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bull. 
No. 42, pp. 23-28. 

Variations in Fat of Milk Served to Customers in Dipping from 
Cans. New York (Cornell) Bull. No. 20, pp. 68-71. 

Variations in the Fat of Milk. Ontario Bull. No. 46. 

Relative Absorption of Odors in Warm and Cold Milk. Wisconsin 
Rept. for 1898, pp. 104-109. 

The Efficiency of a Continuous Pasteurizer. New York (State) 
Bull. No. 172. 

The Detection of Taints in Pasteurized Milk. Wisconsin Rept. for 

1905, pp. 222-226. 

Standardization of Milk and Cream. Illinois Bull. Nos. 74 and 75. 

Chapter IX 

Cream Raising by Dilution. New York (Cornell) Bull. No. 20, 
pp. 61-67; Bull. No. 29, pp. 65-71; Bull. No. 39, pp. 77-85; Illinois 
Bull. No. 12, pp. 376-377; Bull. No. 18, pp. 30-32; Vermont Rept. for 
1890, pp. 100-107.; Vermont Rept. for 1898, pp. 365-366. 

Other Methods of Setting Milk. Minnesota Bull. No. 19, pp. 11- 
19; Iowa Bull. No. 25, pp. 39-40; Indiana Bull. No. 44, pp. 23-37; Wis- 
consin Rept. for 1884, pp. 17-22; Rept. for 1893, pp. 147-150; Bull. 
No. 7, pp. 9-13; Bull. No. 29; Canada, Central Experimental Farm 



References 409 

Kept, for 1891, pp. 89-104; Rept. for 1892, pp. 71-74; Ontario Rept. 
for 1894, pp. 142-144; Vermont Rept. for 1891, pp. 100-101; Maine 
Bull. No. 5, Second Series; Utah Bull. No. 42. 

The Viscosity of Milk. New York (State) Rept. for 1886, pp. 323-330. 

The Constitution of Milk and Some of the Conditions Which Affect 
the Separation of Cream. Wisconsin Bull. No. 18. 

The Centrifugal Separation of Casein and Insoluble Phosphates from 
Milk. Wisconsin Rept. for 1895, pp. 93-99. 

Tests of Cream Separators. Delaware Bull. No. 17, and Rept. for 
1892, pp. 110-122; Iowa Bull. No. 25, pp. 32-38; New Hampshire Rept. 
for 1893, pp. 36-45, and Bull. No. 70; New York (Cornell), Bull. No. 66 
and 105; North Carolina Bull. No. 114; Pennsylvania Rept. for 1892, 
Part II., pp. 51-79, and Bull. No. 20; Bull. No. 27; Rept. for 1894, 
pp. 13-35; South Dakota Bull. No. 39; Vermont Bull. No. 27 and 
Rept. for 1892, pp. 136-143; Rept. for 1893, pp. 92-100; Rept. for 

1894, pp. 151-160; Wisconsin Rept. for 1895, pp. 151-157, and Bull. 
No. 46. 

Chapters X, XI, XII 

Experinuents with Boyd's Vat and Starter. Ontario Rept. for 1891, 
pp. 178-179. 

Bacteria in the Dairy. Connecticut (Storrs) Rept. for 1895, pp. 
14-41. 

The Use of Bacterial Culture Starters in Butter Making, with 
Especial Reference to the Conn Culture (B. 41). Wisconsin Rept. for 

1895, pp. 174-231; published, in part, in Bull. No. 48. 

An Acid Test of Cream. Illinois Bull. No. 32, and Bull. No. 33, 
pp. 399-400. 

The Alkaline Tablet Test of Acidity in Milk or Cream. Wisconsin 
Bull. No. 52, pp. 8-16. 

Sweet versus Sour Cream Butter. Iowa Bull. No. 8, pp. 317-320; 
Bull. No. 11, pp. 481-482; Bull. No. 18, pp. 478-487; Bull. No. 21, pp. 
788-791; Illinois Bull. No. 9, pp. 301-302; Texas Bull. No. 11, pp. 
15-16; Ontario Rept. for 1891, pp. 179-181; West Virginia Rept. for 
1890, pp. 48-66. 

Creamery Studies of Methods and Machinery. A Comparison 
of the Sour Cream, Sweet Cream and Butter Extractor Processes. 
Delaware Rept. for 1890, pp. 17-23, and pp. 129-149; also Bull, 
No. 9. 

Our Experience with Extractor Butter. Ontario Rept. for 1893, 
pp. 170-171. 



410 Milk ayid Its Products 

A Study in Churning. Iowa Bull. No. 22, pp. 819-832. • 

Churning Experiments. Vermont Rept. for 1893, pp. 100-106. 

Butter Tests. New York (State) Rept. for J884, pp. 334-347, and 
Rept. for 1885, pp. 275-292. 

The Effect of Succulent Food upon the Churnability of the Fat in 
Milk. Vermont Rept. for 1890, pp. 70-74. 

Butter Making. Ontario Rept. for 1889, pp. 161-163; Bull. No. 
48. 

Canada Central Experimental Farm Dairy. Bull. No. 3. 

Washing and Salting Butter. Minnesota Bull. No. 7, pp. 34-42. 

Influence of Conditions in Churning on Water in Butter. Iowa 
Bull. No. 52. 

Estimating Water in Butter by Overrun in Churning. Wisconsin 
Rept. for 1905, pp. 186-189. 

The Relation of Acid Fermentation to Butter Flavor and Aroma. 
Iowa Bull. No. 40. 

Commercial Butter Cultures. Pennsylvania Bull. No. 44. 

Heated Milk for Butter Making. Pennsylvania Bull. No. 45. 

Ripening Cream. Connecticut (Storrs) Bull. No. 21. 

Pasteurization of Milk for Butter Making. Ontario Bull. No. 117. 

Pasteurization as Applied to Butter Making. Wisconsin Rept. for 
1903, pp. 167-176. 

Perpetuation of Pure Cultures for Butter Starters. Oregon Bull. 
No. 83. 

Use of Starters in Butter Making. Iowa Bull. No. 103. 

Influence of Acidity of Cream in Flavor of Butter. U. S. Dept. 
Agr., Bureau Animal Industry, Bull. No. 114. 

The Cause of Mottled Butter. Maryland Bull. No. 64. 

Effect of Salt on Water in Butter. Wisconsin Rept. for 1899, pp. 
97-107. 

White Spots in Butter. Wisconsin Rept. for 1899, pp. 118-120. 

Effect of Feed on Quality of Butter. Vermont Rept. for 1901, pp. 
375-377. 

Water in Butter. Ontario Rept. for 1902, pp. 38-39. 

Keeping Quality of Butter. Iowa Bull. No. 71. 

Moisture Content of Butter. Iowa Bull. No. 76. 

Keeping Quality of Butter. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Animal In- 
dustry, Bull. No. 57. 

Relation of Proteids to Mottled Butter. New York (State) Bull. 
No. 263. 

Butter Preservatives. Ontario Bull. No. 145. 



References 411 

Manufacture and Storage of Butter. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau Animal 
Industry, Bull. Nos. 84 and 89. 

Comparison of Aniline and Annatto Butter Colors. Wisconsin Ball. 
No. 152. 

A Study of Moisture in Butter. Iowa Bull. No. 101. . 

Paraffining Butter Tubs. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau Animal Industry, 
Bull. No. 130. 

Factors Influencing the Composition of Butter. Illinois Bulls. Nos. 
137, 138 and 139. 

Keeping Quality of Butter. Michigan Tech. Bulls. Nos. 1 and 2. 

Chapteks XIII, XIV 

For references to aeration, see Chapter VII. 

Points of Attention for the Patrons of Cheese Factories and Cream- 
eries. Ontario Bull. No. 2. 

Milk for Cheese Making. Ontario Bull. No. 49; Bull. No. 28; Bull. 
No. 94; Canada Central Experimental Farm Dairy. Bull. No. 1. 

Pure Lactic Culture of Bacteria in Cheese Making. Wisconsin Rept. 
for 1896, pp. 112-126. 

Rennet Extracts of Commerce. Iowa Bull. No. 22, pp. 845-851. 

Losses in Cheese Making. Vermont Rept. for 1891, pp. 95-100. 

The Effect of Salt upon Cheese. Wisconsin Rept. for 1894, pp. 
220-222. 

The Effect of Aeration on the Flavor of Tainted Curds in Cheese 
Making. The Influence of Acid on the Texture of Cheese. The Hot 
Iron Test. Experiments in Ripening the Milk before Setting. Wis- 
consin Rept. for 1895, pp. 127-138. 

Experiments in the Manufacture of Cheese. New York (State) 
Repts. for 1891, p. 216; 1892, p. 295; 1893, p. 239; 1894, p. 263. 

Hints to Cheese Makers. Iowa Bufl. No. 19, pp. 627-631. 

Investigations in Cheese Making. Iowa Bull. No. 21, pp. 735-767. 

Experiments in Cheese Making. Minnesota Bull. No. 19, pp. 20-25. 

Experiments in the Manufacture of Cheese. Wisconsin Rept. for 
1894, pp. 131-149. 

The Relation between Milk Solids and the Yield of Cheese. Wis- 
consin Rept. for 1895, pp. 100-119. 

Notes for Cheese Makers for May. Ontario Bull. No. 40; for July, 
Bull. No. 43; for August, Bull. No. 44; for October, Bull. No. 47. Rept. 
for 1889, pp. 163-179. 

Notes for Cheese Makers for May. Canada Central Experimental 



412 Milk and Its Products 

Farm, Dairy Bull. No. 2; Special Dairy Bulletins for July, August, 
October and June. 

Articles on Spring, Summer and Fall Cheese in Ontario Rept. for 
1893, pp. 167-170. 

Gas-producing Bacteria, and the Relation of the Same to Cheese. 
Wisconsin Rept. for 1895. 

The Rise and Fall of Bacteria in Cheddar Cheese. Wisconsin Rept. 
for 1896, pp. 95-111. 

An Aromatic Bacillus of Cheese. Iowa Bull. No. 21, pp. 792-796. 

Changes During Cheese Ripening. Iowa Bull. No. 24, pp. 969-984. 

Rusty Cans and Effect on Milk for Cheese Making. Wisconsin Bull- 
No. 162. 

Propagation of Pure Starters in Cheese Making. Wisconsin Bull. 
No. 181. 

Moisture Supply in Cheese Curing Rooms. Wisconsin Rept. for 
1896, pp. 156-163. 

Experiments upon the Curing of Cheese. Cornell University Agr. 
Exp. Sta. Rept. for 1880, pp. 9-27. 

Effect of Rennet Extract in Curdling Milk. Wisconsin Rept. for 
1898, pp. 31-34. 

The Action of Rennet in Watered Milk. Wisconsin Rept. for 1898, 
pp. 35-36. 

The Effect of Salt on Rennet Action. Wisconsin Rept. for 1898, pp. 
37-41. 

Action of Ferments in Ripening Cheese. Wisconsin Rept. for 1899, 
pp. 57-174. 

Effect of Digesting Bacteria on Cheese Solids. Wisconsin Rept. for 
1899. 

Coating Cheese with Paraffin. Wisconsin Rept. for 1899, pp. 153-154, 

Influence of Cold Curing on Quality of Cheese. Wisconsin Rept. for 
1901, pp. 136-161. 

A Study of Enzymes in Cheese. New York (State) Bull. No. 203. 

Conditions Affecting Weight Lost in Cheese Curing. New York 
(State) Bull. No. 207. 

Salts Formed by Casein and Paracasein in Cheddar Cheese Making. 
New York (State) Bull. No. 214-219. . 

Ripening Cheese in Cold Storage. Ontario Bull. No. 121. 

Influence of Temperature of 60° on Flavor in Cold Cured Cheese. 
Wisconsin Rept. for 1902, pp. 165-183. 

Cold Curing of Cheese. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau Animal Industry, 
Bull. No. 49. 



References 413 

Ripening Cheese. New York (State) Bulls. Nos. 233, 234, 236 and 
237. 

Shrinkage of Cold Cured Cheese. Wisconsin Bull. No. 101. 

Experimental Work in Cheese Making. Wisconsin Rept. for 1903, 
pp. 188-192. 

Investigations in Curing Cheese. Wisconsin Rept. for 1903, pp. 
193-219. 

Canning Cheese. Oregon Bull. No. 78. 

Relations of Bacteria to Flavor of Cheddar Cheese. U. S. Dept. Agr., 
Bureau Animal Industry, Bull No. 62; Wisconsin Report for 1904. 

Relation of Casein and Paracasein to Cheddar Cheese. New York 
(State) Bull. No. 261. 

Cold Storage of Cheese. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau Animal Industry, 
BuU. No. 83. 

Influence of Metals on Action of Rennet. Wisconsin Rept. for 1907, 
pp. 134-159. 

An Automatic Cheese Press. Wisconsin Rept. for 1907. 

Defects in Cheddar Cheese. New York (Cornell) Bull. No. 257. 

The First Chemical Changes in Cheddar Cheese. New York (State) 
Tech. Bull. No. 4. 

The Bacterial Flora of Cheddar Cheese. New York (State) Tech. 
Bull. No. 8. 

Chapter XV 

The Manufacture of Sweet Curd Cheese (Edam and Gouda). Min- 
nesota Rept. for 1894, pp. 104-128, and Bull. No. 35. 

Experiment Relating to the Manufacture of Edam and Gouda Cheese. 
New York (State) Rept. for 1893, pp. 244-269, and Bull. No. 56. 

Albumin Cheese. Wisconsin Rept. for 1895, pp. 134-136. 

Chemical Changes in Souring Milk in Relation to Cottage Cheese. 
New York (State) Bull. No. 245. 

Soft Cheese Studies in Europe. U. S. Dept. Agr. Rept. for 1905, pp. 
75-109. 

Varieties of Cheese. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau Animal Industry, 
Bull. No. 105. 

Care and Testing of Camembert Cheese. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau 
Animal Industry, Rept. for 1907, pp. 339-343. 

Camembert Cheese Problems in United States. Connecticut 
(Storrs) Bull. No. 58. 

Fancy Cheese for Farm and Factory. New York (Cornell) Bull. No. 
270. 



414 Milk and Its Products 



Chapter XVI 

The Manufacture of Ice Cream. Iowa Bull. -No. 123; Vermont Bull. 
No. 155. 

Chapter XVII 

The Manufacture of Milk Sugar (Report of Chemist). Delaware 
Report for 1891, pp. 104-108. 

The Hog as an Adjunct to the Dairy. Ontario Rept. for 1889, pp. 
184-189. 

Whey Butter. New York (Cornell) Bull. No. 85. 

Sweet Skim Milk; Its Value as Food for Pigs and Calves. Wis- 
consin Bull. No. 1. 

The Feeding Value of Whey. Wisconsin Bull. No. 27; Report 
for 1891, pp. 38-48. 

Feeding Waste Products of the Dairy. Wisconsin Report for 1886, 
pp. 21-25. 

The Value of Creamery Separator Skim Milk for Swine Feeding. 
Wisconsin Report for 1895, pp. 7-23. 

Whey Butter of Swiss Cheese. Wisconsin Bull. No. 132. 

Pasteurization and Inspection of Creamery By-products. Wisconsin 
Bull. No. 148. 

Chapter XVIII 

BuUding Creameries and Organization of Cooperative Creamery 
Companies. South Dakota Bull. No. 46. 

Creameries for Texas; Plans and Specifications in Full for Creamery 
Outfit. Texas Bull. No. 5. 

Cooperative Creameries. Minnesota Report for 1894, pp. 93-103, 
and Bull. No. 35. 

The Establishment of Cheese Factories and Creameries. Special 
Bull, of the Central Canada Experimental Farm, Ottawa. 

By-Laws, Rules and Regulations for Cheese Factories. Canada 
Central Experimental Farm Dairy Bull. No. 9. 

Construction of Cheese Curing Rooms. Wisconsin Bull. No. 70. 

Improvement of Cheese Curing Rooms. Ontario Dairy Div. Bull. 
No. 1. 

Plans for a Cool Cheese Curing Room. Ontario Dairy Div. Bull. 
No. 7. 

By-Laws, Rules and Regulations for Creameries on the Cream- 
Gathering Plan. Central Experimental Farm, Dairy Bull. No. 10. 



References 



Chapter XIX 

Statistics of the Dairy; U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Animal In- 
dustry. Bull. No. 11. 

Returns from the Ninth, Tenth, and Eleventh Censuses, Relating 
to the Production of Milk, Butter and Cheese on the Farm.'' U. S. 
Dept. Agr., Report of the Statistician, No. 113, pp. 115-118. 

General 

Facts About Milk. U. S. Dept. of Agr., Farmers' Bull. No. 42. 

The Dairy Industry in Denmark. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of 
Animal Industry, Bull. No. 5. 

The Creamery Industry. Nevada Bull. No. 16. 

Dairying. South Carolina Bull. No. 19. 

Dairying in California. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Animal In- 
dustry, Bull. No. 14. 

Dairy Farming in Washington. Washington Bull. No. 2, pp. 23-27. 

The Dairy Industry in Nebraska, South Dakota, and North Dakota, 
U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Animal Industry, Bull. No. 16. 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Abnormal fermentations 113 

Accumulator 191 

Accuracy of Babcock test glassware . 99 
Acid, boracic 121 

— butyric 20, 23 

— capric 23 

— caproic 23 

— caprylic 23 

— citric 26 

— dioxystearic 23 

— formation of lactic 198 

— hydrochloric in ripening cream. . 197 

— lactic 25, 116, 196, 208, 241 

— lactic, determination of . . . .205, 351 

— lauric 23 

— myristic 22 

— oleic 22 

— palmitic 22 

— salicylic 121 

— stearic 22 

— sulphuric 104 

— tests 204 

Acini 3 

Act, Filled Cheese 345, 382 

— oleomargarine 344, 369 

Adams paper-coil method 78 

Adjustable, separator 191 

Advanced registry of cows 45 

Aeration of milk 138, 242 

Aerators 139 

Aerometer, Soxhiet's 87 

Agar... 127, 128, 131 

— lactose 129 

Agricultural Experiment Station 

Bulletins 404 

Air drainage 327 

Air space necessary in stables 153 

Albumin 23, 24 

Albuminoid fermentations 117 

Albuminoids 23 

Alcoholic fermentation 25 

Alderney cattle 66 



PAGE 

Alexandra Jumbo separator. . .191, 192 

Aliquot milk samples, Scovell 103 

Alkali, decinormal 204, 351 

— ^ 204, 351 

— use of in cleaning 136 

Alkaline tablets, Farrington's 

124, 205, 351 
Alpha B separator 191 

— Baby separator 191 

— discs 187 

— No. 1 separator 192 

— separator 187 

Alveoli 3 

American cheddar process 249 

— home-trade cheese 270 

— Neuf chatel cheese 273 

Amphoteric reaction 108 

Analysis, gravimetric 77 

Analyses of milk 17 

Angularity, relation of to capacity . . 42 

Angus, J. J., mentioned 323 

Aniline butter color 231 

Animal, effect of, on milk secretion . 14 

— excrement, relation of bacteria 

to 119 

— odor 138 

Annatto 231 

Antiseptics 120 

Apparatus bacteriological 126 

— Fjord's control 88 

— pasteurizing 123 

Arnold, L. B., quoted 170 

Arnold's separator 191 

Aromatics and stimulants 50 

Artificial butter 344 

— starter, preparation of 354 

Asbestos method, Babcock 78 

Ash 25 

Asses' milk 16, 36 

Associated dairying 340 

Associations, cow-testing 47 



AA 



(417) 



418 



Index 



PAGE 

Aufaits 301 

Autoclave 134 

Avoiding flavors due to food 21 

Ayrshire cattle 69 

— milk 33 

B. 41 199 

Babcock asbestos method 78 

— centrifugal '. 94 

— formula for total solids 350 

— glassware, calibration of 359 

Babcock, S. M., mentioned 89, 91 

— , S. M., quoted 

14, 17, 147, 170, 171, 236 

— test 91 

acid for 104 

black specks in 105 

bottle 95 

calibration of glassware 99 

details of 94 

for butter 99, 359 

for cheese 99, 359 

for cream 97 

for skim milk 98 

glassware 95 

accuracy of 99 

-■ cleaning 107 

reading the fat , . 106 

sampling milk 101 

temperature of reading fat 

95, 106 

Baby separator 191 

De Laval 193 

Bacillus 109 

— acidi-lactici 115 

— No. 41 199 

— prodigiosus 113 

— tubercle 122 

Bacteria 109 

— determination of in milk 125 

— presence of in milk Ill 

— relation of to animal excrement. 119 

dust to 119 

to hay and dried forage 119 

Bacteriological apparatus 126 

— laboratory 126 

— media 127 

Bad flavors in milk 143 

Balanced ration 51 

B. and W. test bottle 96 

Barber, quoted 200 

Batch freezers 307 

Beimling, H. F., mentioned , 92 



PAGE 

Beimling test 92 

Belted cattle, Dutch 74 

Bernstein, Alexander, mentioned. . .324 

Bichromate of potash 102 

Biscuit ice cream 300 

Bisque ice cream 301 

Bitter milk 113, 143 ~ 

Bixa orellana 231 

Black specks in Babcock test 105 

Blended milk. Federal standard for . 365 
Blood, relation of to milk secretion. . 11 

"Bloody bread" , ... 113 

Board of Health lactometer 80, 349 

Boracic acid 121 

Borden, Gail, Jr., mentioned 316 

Bottle, Babock test 95 

Bottling milk 142, 162 

Bouillon 131 

— nutrient 127 

Bowls, separator 179 

Brands for cheese, State 345 

"Breaking" of butter •. .216 

Breed, relation of to milk produc- 
tion 52 

— selection of 52 

— dairy 63 

Brie cheese 295 

Brine freezers 307 

— salting butter 227 

Browne, quoted 22 

Brown separator, medium 191 

Brown Swiss cattle 73 

Buildings, dairy 326 

Bulletins, references to 404 

Bull, management of 57 

— selection of 55 

Burette... 206 

Butter accumulator 191 

— and cheese factories combined.. .335 

— artificial 344 

— Babcock test for -. . . 359 

— "breaking" of 216 

— brine salting 227 

— color of ...231 

— colors 231 

-^ color, aniline 231 

— composition of 229 

— "factory" 346 

— factories 326 

arrangement of 327 

construction of 330 

— fat. Federal standard for 366 

— Federal standard for 366 



Index 



419 



PAGE 

Butter finish 232 

— flavor of , 230 

— granules, sizeof 221 

— imitation creamery 346 

— marketing 227 

— moisture-test, Cornell 359 

— mottled and streaked 226 

— packages 228 

— packing 227 

— prints 229 

— "process" 346 

— quality of 229 

— rancid 20 

— relation of lactic acid to keeping 

quality 207 

— relation of wash water to flavor . 223 

— relation of wash water to 

texture 222 

— renovated 346 

— salting 224 

— score card for 232 

— "standing up" quality 196 

— sweet cream 207 

— testing by Babcock method 99 

— texture of 222, 230 

— washing 220 

• — white specks in 208 

— workers 223 

— working 223 

Buttermilk 315 

— characteristic appearance of . . . .217 

— Federal standard for 366 

— separation of from butter 219 

Butyric acid 20, 23 

— fermentations 113, 118 

Butyrin , 20 

Butyrometer 93 

By-products of dairy 315 

Caked udder 38 

Calcium chloride 248 

— oxalate 248 

Calibration of Babcock glassware.... 359 

— of glassware in Babcock test. ... 99 

Camembert cheese 295 

Canadian cattle, French 75 

— Club cheese 279 

Capacity of cows 41 

— relation of external form to 43 

Capric acid 23 

Caprilin 20 

Caprin 20 

Caproic acid . . ; 23 



PAGE 

Caproin 20 

Caprylic acid 23 

Caramel ice cream 310 

Care of cows . 155 

milk utensils 160 

stable 156 

Careno, quoted 26 

Casein 23, 233 

— coagulation of 234 

— dried 320 

— formation of 7 

Cattle, Alderney 66 

— Ayrshire 69 

— Brown Swiss 73 

— Devon 74 

— Dutch 67 

— Dutch Belted ^ 74 

— feeding dairy 47 

— French Canadian 75 

— Guernsey 65 

— Holstein. 66 

Friesian 66 

— Jersey 64 

— Kerry 75 

— Lakenvelder 74 

— Normandy 75 

— Red Polled 73 

— Shorthorn 71 

— Simmenthal 75 

Caustic potash 102 

— soda 102 

Cells, secreting-. 3 

Cement floors 330 

Centigrade thermometer 349 

Centrifugal, Babcock 94 

— butter-worker 225 

— creaming 177 

— force, relation to complete 

creaming 181 

— separation 177 

theory of 179 

— separator, efficiency of 190 

theory of 180 

— system 164 

Certified milk 149 

standards 151 

Cheddar cheese 249 

English 280 

making 251 

Cheddaring 257 

— process 249 

Cheese 233 

— Act, Filled 345, 382 



420 



Index 



PAGE 

Cheese aeration of milk 242 

— American home-trade 270 

— and butter factories combined.. .335 

— Babcock test for 359 

— bandage 263 

— Brie 295 

— Camembert 295 

— Canadian Club 279 

— Cheddar ^249 

— Cheshire 280, 286 

— Club House 279 

— color of 268 

— composition 267 

— cottage 322 

— cream . 270 

— curing 264 

— curing in cold storage 265 

-;— curing-rooms, construction of. . .334 

— Derbyshire 280, 288 

— D'Isigny 297 

— dividends on the fat basis 239 

— double Gloucester 280 

— dressing 263 

— Dutch 322 

— Edam 290 

— Emmenthaler 289 

— English 280 

— English Cheddar 280 

— estimation of fat in by Babcock 

test 99 

— factories 326 

— factories, construction of 332 

— factory system 341 

— fancy 270 

— Federal standard for 367 

— filled 345 

— filled law 382 

— flavor of 268 

— "flinty break" 268 

— food 323 

— formation of rind 263 

— Gloucester, single and double. . . 280 

— Gouda 294 

— Gorgonzola 289 

— Gruyere 289 

— hard 269 

— Imitation Swiss 279 

— Lancashire 280, 288 

— Law, filled 382 

— leaky 271 

— Leicestershire 280, 288 

— Limburger 277 

— making 233 



PAGE 

Cheese making, Cheddar 251 

cheddaring or matting 257 

Cheddar process 249 

cookiiig the curd 255 

cooling milk 241 

curing 263 

cutting curd 253 

"gassy" curds 266 

grinding curd 259 

heating 255 

— - — loss of fat in 240 

overripe milk 266 

pressing 261 

quality of milk for 234 

removal of whey 249 

rich and poor milk in 238 

ripening milk for 242 

salting the curd 260 

setting 251 

starters 246 

temperature of setting 251 

undesirable fermentations in . 265 

— Meadow Sweet 279 

— Neufchatel 273 

— Parmesan 298 

— Philadelphia Cream 277 

— picnic 273 

— pineapple 273 

— poisonous 115 

— Pont L'Eveque 297 

— Port du Salut 298 

— pot 322 

— prepared 279 

— press 262 

— pressing 261 

— quality of 267 

— ratio of fat to casein 235 

— relation of fat in milk to 236 

— rind 268 

— ripening 264 

— Roquefort 294 

— sage 272 

— Schweitzer 289 

— score card for 268 

— single Gloucester 280 

— skimmed 269, 345 

— sloppy 271 

— soft 269 

— solids concerned in making 233 

— square cream 277 

— state brands for 345 

— Stilton .280 

— stirred curd 270 



Index 



421 



PAGE 

Cheese, Swiss 289 

— testing by Babcock method 99 

— texture of 268 

— truckle 273 

— varieties of 269 

— Wensleydale 280, 289 

— "wet" 271 

— whey 322 

— Wiltshire 280 

— Young America 273 

Cheshire cheese 280, 286 

Chloride of potash 25 

— of soda 25 

Chocolate ice cream 310 

Chromogenic fermentations 113 

Churn 210 

Churning 210 

— amount of motion necessary .... 215 
Churning, difficult 217 

— dilution of cream 218 

— effect of motion on 213 

— effect of temperature on 211 

— evolution of gas in 219 

— kind of agitation desirable 213 

— relation of fat globules to 215 

— relation of ripeness of cream to . . 

207, 211 

temperature 211 

viscosity to 210 

— rise of temperature in 219 

Churn, oil test 84 

Churn tests 83 

Cistern, milk 5 

Citric acid 26 

Classification of ice cream 300 

Cleaning Babcock test glassware. . . 107 

— dairy tinware 136 

— glassware 130 

— utensils 13 

Cleanliness 135 

Clotted cream, Federal standard for . 366 

Cloth strainers 137 

Club-house cheese 279 

Coagulation of albumin 24 

casein 24, 234 

fibrin 24 

Coccus 109 

Cochran, C. B., mentioned 91 

— method 91 

Coffee ice cream 310 

— parfait 311 

Cold storage, curing cheese in 265 

Color fermentations 113 



PAGE 

Color of butter 231 

cheese 268 

Colostrum 9, 18 

— corpuscles , 18 

— test for 18 

Columbia separator 191 

Combined butter and cheese fac- 
tories 335 

Commercial ferments 199 

— milk 36 

Comparison of lactometer scales . . . 350 

thermometer scales 349 

Composite sampling 102 

Composition of butter 229 

cheese 267 

colostrum 18 

cream 148 

milk .- 16 

Concentrated milk 319 

Concentrates 49 

Concussion in churning 213 

Condensed milk 316 

Federal standard for 365 

— skim milk, Federal standard for. 366 
Conn culture 200 

— H. W., quoted 199 

Connective tissue 3 

Constituents of milk 17 

Construction of creameries 330 

Continuous freezers 307 

— pressure cheese press 262 

Control apparatus, Fjord's 88 

— of fermentations 118 

milk supply 145 

Cooking curd 255 

Coolers, milk 139 

Cooley system 169 

Cooling milk 138, 158, 241 

Cooperative cow testing 47 

Cornell butter moisture test 359 

Cornevin, quoted 17 

Corpuscles, colostrum 18 

Correction for lactometer tempera- 
ture 350 

Corrosive sublimate 102 

Cottage cheese 322 

Counting bacteria 133 

Covered milk pails 158 

Cow as commercial milk producer... 36 

— effect of age on composition of 

milk 31 

breed on composition of 

milk 33 



422 



Index 



PAGE 

Cows, advanced registry 45 

— care of 155 

— contraction of milking habits. . . 41 

— drying Up 38 

— feeding 47 

standards for 48 

— grade 53 

— holding up milk 5 

— ideal ration for 47 

— individual capacity of 41 

— milk 16 

— number in United States 339 

— official inspection of 143 

— pure bred 53 

— relation of form to capacity 43 

— requirements for registration .... 54 

— score card for 44 

— "scrub" 53 

— selection of 154 

— testing associations 47 

— wedge-shaped form 42 

Cranberry mousse 311 

Cream 163 

— cheeses 270 

Philadelphia 277 

square 277 

— composition of 163 

— consistency of 147 

— definition of 163 

— degree of ripeness necessary 204 

— dilution in churning 218 

— effects of ripening 206 

— estimation of fat by Babcock 

test 97 

— Federal standard for 366 

— for consumption 146 

— frothing or swelling 218 

— gathering system 83, 342 

— gauges 78 

— glasses 78 

— homogenized 303 

— hydrochloric acid in ripening . . . 197 

— ice 299 

— ices 300 

— influence of oxygen in ripening, . 197 

— over-ripening . . . ; 208 

— pasteurized 147 

— pasteurizing 202 

— quality of for consumption 148 

ice cream 303 

— relation of ripeness to churn- 

ing 211 

temperature to ripening. . 203 



PAGE 

Cream ripening of 195 

lactic acid in 196 

temperature of 203 

— screw 185 

— separation of 163 

— standardization of 353 

— standards for 148 

— state standards for. 368 

— "swelling" of ' 218 

— testing by Babcock method .... 97 

— test bottles 96 

— use of starter in ripening 198 

— visco 148 

Creameries '. 326 

— arrangements of 327 

— construction of 330 

— gathered cream . 342 

— gravity system 327 

— ground plan 329 

— location of 326 

— pumping system 328 

— water supply of 331 

Creamery butter, irnitation . . .346, 347 

— systems 341 

Creaming by dilution 173 

— centrifugal 177 

— deep setting 168 

— effect of delayed setting '. . . 171 

dilution on 173 

— gravity 164, 165 

— losses in deep setting 169 

shallow pan 168 

— necessity for 165 

— relation of centrifugal force to 

complete 181 

centrifugal to 182 

fat globules to 166 

inflow to complete 184 

solids not fat to 166 

viscosity of milk to 167 

— shallow pan 167 

— systems of 164 

— theory of centrifugal 18C 

— theory of deep setting syotem . . 16P 

Creamometers 78 

Culture, Conn 200 

— starters 201 

Curd, cooking 255 

— cutting 253 

— fast working 266 

— floating 265 

— "gassy" 265 

— grinding 259 



Index 



423 



PAGE 

Curd heating 255 

— in Babcock test 105 

— knives 254 

— matting or cheddaring 257 

— membrane 255 

— mills 259 

— salting 260 

— sink 257 

— test, Wisconsin 357 

Curds, washing or soaking 272 

Curdling, sweet 113 

Curing cheese 264 

■ — cheese in cold storage 265 

' — rooms, construction of 334 

' subearth duct 244 

Cutting curds 253 

Dairy breeds 63 

— buildings, farm 326 

■ — by-products 315 

■ — cattle, feeding 47 

■ — factory system 341 

■ — herd, formation of 53 

■ "grading up" 58 

■ maintenance of 54 

— law, New York 387 

— laws 365 

'— legislation 343 

■ — markets 346 

■ — products, legal standards for. . . . 365 

■ — references 404 

■ — statistics 338 

— type 42 

Dairying, associated 340 

Danish separator, large and small ... 191 

— Weston separator 191 

Dean, H. H., quoted 142, 237 , 

Decinormal alkali 204, 351 

Deep setting creaming 168 

system 164, 168 

theory of 169 

D'Isigny cheese 297 

De Laval Baby separator 193 

— Gustav, mentioned 179 

— lactocrite 87 

— separator 185, 187, 191 

— separator, Alpha No. 1 192 

— standard separator 193 

Delayed setting, effect on cream- 
ing 171 

Derbyshire cheese 280, 288 

Detachable neck test bottle 96 

Determination of bacteria in milk. . 125 



PAGE 

Determination of lactic acid . . 205, 351 
Detection of tainta and fermenta- 
tions 357 

Devon cattle 74 

— milk 33 

Dextrose 25 

Diameter of fat globules 23 

Difficult churning 217 

Dilution creaming 173 

— separator 177 

Dioxystearic acid 23 

Dipping milk 139 

Discs alpha 187 

Disease germs 113, 122 

— relation of pasteurization to ... . 142 
Diseased herds — official inspection 

a prevention 142 

Dishes, petri ' 134 

Disinfectants, use of 156 

Double Gloucester cheese 280 

— neck test bottle 96 

Drainage, air 327 

"Dressing" cheese 263 

Dried casein 320 

"Drying off" cows 38 

Duct, sub-earth 334 

Ducts, milk 2, 15 

Dust in stable, removal of 156 

— relation of to bacteria 119 

Dutch Belted cattle 74 

— cattle... 67 

— cheese ^. 322 

Edam cheese 290 

Effect of delayed setting on cream- 
ing 171 

dilution on creaming 173 

Efficiency of centrifugal separator. .190 

Electricity as a germicide 121 

Electrolysis of milk 121 

Emmenthaler cheese 289 

Emulsion 23, 163 

English Cheddar cheese 280 

— cheeses 280 

Escutcheon 5.6 

Essential oils in milk 20 

Estimation of solids not fat.. . . 107, 350 

— of total solids 107, 350 

Ether-like flavors 197 

Eureka butter worker 223 

Evaporated cream, Federal stand- 
ard 366 

— milk 318 



424 



Index 



PAGE 

Evaporated milk, Federal standard 

for •. 365 

Ewe's milk 16 

Ewe's milk cheese, Federal standard 

for 367 

Federal standard for 366 

Excrement, animal, relation of bac- 
teria to 119 

Experiment Station Bulletins 404 

Extract, rennet 248 

Factories, arrangement of cheese . . . 332 

— butter and cheese 326 

— butter, arrangement of 327 

construction of 330 

— cheese, construction of 332 

— gathered cream 342 

Factory butter 346 

• — system, development of 341 

Fahrenheit thermometer 349 

Failyer, Professor, mentioned 89 

— and Willard, mentioned 89 

method 89 

Fancy cheese 270 

Farm dairy buildings 335 

Farrington's alkaline tablets 

124, 305, 351 

— E. H., mentioned , 204 

quoted... 123, 199 

Farrow cows, milk from 28 

Fast-working curds 267 

Fat basis in cheese dividends 239 

— estimation in cheese by Babcock 

test 99 

— formation of 8 

— ■ globules 8 

— globules, diameter of 23 

relation of to churning 215 

— in milk, relation to cheese made . 236 

— loss of in cheese-making 240 

— milk or butter. Federal standard.366 

— temperature of reading in Bab- 

cock test 95, 106 

Fats 20 

— effect of feed on 30 

period of lactation on. ... 27 

— formation of 8 

— gravimetric determination of . . . 77 
- — non-volatile 22 

— volatile 197 

Fatty tissue 3 

Febrile condition, effect on milk. ... 29 
Federal standards 365 



PAGE 

Feeding dairy cattle 47 

■ — standards for cows 48 

Ferment, preparation of artificial. . . 354 

Fermentation", abnormal 113 

Fermentations, albuminoid 117 

— alcoholic 25 

— butyric 113, 118 

— chromogenic 113 

— control of 118 

— detection of 357 

— gaseous 117 

— "gassy" 265 

— germs of ... 109 

— lactic 113, 115, 266 

— of milk 108 

— normal 113 

— peptogenic 113, 117 

— poisonous 115 

■ — putrefactive 113, 117 

Ferments, undersirable in cheese 

making 265 

— commercial 199 

— Hansen's lactic 199 

— preparation of ripening 354 

— soluble 234 

Feser's lactoscope 86 

Fibrin 23, 171 

Filled cheese 345 

law 345, 382 

Fillers for ice cream 305 

Finish of butter 232 

First milk 30 

Fission 109 

Fjord's control apparatus 88 

— Professor, mentioned 88 

Flavors due to food 21 

— of butter 230 

relation of wash water to. 223 

cheese 268 

— bad in milk 143 

— ether-like 197 

— for ice cream 304 

— producing germs 197 

Fleischmann, quoted 17 

Fleshy udder 3 

"Flinty break" of cheese 268 

Floating curds 265 

Floors, cement 330 

Follicles, ultimate 3, 6 

Food as a factor in milk production 47 

— avoiding flavors due to 21 

— effect of on flavor of milk 21 

on composition of milk 30 



Index 



425 



PAGE 

Food efifect on quality of fat 30 

Foods, necessity for succulent 50 

— palatability of 50 

— relation of proteids to non-pro- 

teids 51 

Forage — relation of dry to bacteria . 119 

Fore milk and strippings 30 

Formalin 121 

Formation of cheese rind 263 

Formulae for total solids 350 

Frappes 300, 301 

Fraser cheese press 262 

Freezers 306 

Freezing ice cream 305 

— mixtures 306 

French Canadian cattle 75 

Fright, effect on milk secretion 14 

Frothing of cream 218 

Fruit ice cream 301 

Federal standard for 367 

Galactose 25 

Gang cheese press 262 

Gaseous fermentations 117 

Gases in milk 138 

Gas, evolution of in churning 219 

"Gassy" curds 265 

Gassy ferments in Neufchatel 

cheese 274 

Gathered cream system 341 

Gauges, cream 78 

Gelatine 127, 128, 129, 131, 305 

— lactose 129 

Gerber, mentioned -92 

Gerber's method 92 

Germs, destruction of in milk 120 

— diseases 113 

— flavor producing 197 

— lactic acid 115 

— of disease 122 

— of fermentation 109 

Glands, mammary 1 

Glasses, cream 78 

Glassware, Babcock, calibration of.. 99 

test 95 

accuracy of 99 

— calibration of Babcock 359 

— cleaning 130 

Babcock 107 

Globules, fat 23 

Gloucester cheese 280 

Glycerides 22 

Goat's milk 16, 36 



PAGE 

Goat's milk, Federal standard for . . 366 

cheese. Federal standard for. 367 

Gorgonzola cheese 289 

Gouda cheese 294 

Grades 53 

"Grading up" the herd 58 

Grain of butter 230 

Granite ice cream 300 

Granules, size of butter 221 

Gravimetric analysis 77 

Gravity, creaming 164, 165 

— separators 177 

— specific 79, 82, 349 

— system of creamery construction . 327 

Grinding curd 259 

Gruyere cheese 289 

Guernsey cattle , . 65 

— milk ^ 33 

Gum tragacanth 305 

Gurler, H. B., quoted 200 

Half blood, definition of 53 

Hansen's lactic ferment 199 

Hard cheeses 269 

Harris curd mill 259 

Hay, relation of bacteria to 119 

Heating curds 255 

Heat, sexual, effect on milk secretion 14 

Heeren's pioscope 85 

Hegelund, mentioned 40 

— method of milking 40 

Herd, formation of dairy 53 

— "grading up" the 58 

— maintenance of dairy 54 

— oflacial inspection of diseased . . . 143 

Hill, Janet McKenzie, quoted 300 

Holding up milk 5 

Holstein cattle 66 

— Friesian cattle 66 

milk 33 

Home trade cheese 270 

Homogenized milk and cream 303 

Horizontal separators 179 

Hot iron test 358 

Hueppe, mentioned 115 

Hydrochloric acid in ripening cream 197 
Hydrometer 79 

Ice cream 299 

caramel 310 

chocolate 310 

classification 300 

coffee 310 



426 



Index 



PAGE 

Ice cream, federal standard for .... 367 

fillers for 305 

flavors 304 

freezers 306 

freezing and packing 305 

gum tragacanth for 305 

lemon 310 

macaroon 310 

maple 310 

— — mint. 310 

orange 310 

quality of cream for 304 

recipes 308 

score card for 312 

strawberry 310 

tutti frutti . .311 

walnut 310 

Ices 300 

Ideal ration for cows 47 

Imitation creamery butter 346 

— Swiss cheese 279 

Inbreeding 61 

Indicator, litmus 351 

— phenolphthalein 204, 351 

Individual capacity of cows . 41 

Infection, prevention of 118 

Inflow, relation of to complete 

creaming 182 

Iowa Station test 90 

Iron clad tinware 135 

Iron, phosphate of 25 

Jersey cattle 64 

— milk 33 

Jordan, W. H., quoted 173 

Jumbo separator 191, 192 

Keeping quality, relation of lactic 

acid to 207 

Kephir 324 

Kerry cattle 75 

Knives, curd 254 

Koenig, quoted 17 

Koumiss 16, 324 

— Federal standard for 367 

Laboratory, bacteriological 126 

Lactation period, efi'ect on com- 
position of milk 27 

Lactic acid 25, 116, 196, 208, 241 

determination of 205, 351 

formation of 198 

germs 115 



PAGE 

Lactic acid relation to keeping 
quality of butter 207 

— fermentations 113, 115, 266 

— ferments, Hansen's 199 

Lactobutyrometer, Marchand's. ... 85 

Lactochrome 26 

Lactocrite, De Laval 87 

Lactometer 79 

— Board of Health 80, 349 

— comparison of scales 80 

— correction for temperature 81 

— Quevenne 80, 350 

— scales, comparison of 80 

— temperature correction for 350 

Lactoprotein 26 

Lactos 301 

Lactoscope 86 

Lactose 25 

— agar 129 

— gelatine 129 

Lakenvelder cattle 74 

Lancashire cheese 280, 288 

Large Danish separator 191 

Laurie acid 23 

Laurin 20 

Law, dairy 365 

— filled cheese 382 

— New York dairy 387 

— oleomargarine.. 369 

"Leaky cheese" 271 

LeFeldt and Lentsch, mentioned . . . 178 

LeFeldt and Lentsch separator 178 

Leffman and Beam, mentioned 92 

Legal standards 365 

for milk 145 

cream 368 

Legislation, dairy 343 

Leicestershire cheese 280, 288 

Lemon ice cream 310 

— sherbet 311 

Lentsch and LeFeldt, mentioned . . . 178 
Light in stables, minimum require- 
ments 153 

Limberger cheese 277 

Lime, phosphate of 25 

Lime salts 247 

Litmus 129 

— test 351 

Loss of fat in cheese making 240 

Lymphatics 3 

Macaroon ice cream .310 

MacPherson curd mill 260 



Index 



427 



PAGE 

Magnesia, phosphate of 25 

Major dairy breeds 63 

Males, milk from 10 

Mammae 1 

Mammalia 1 

Mammary glands 1 

Mann's acid test 204 

— A. G., mentioned 204 

Maple ice cream 310 

Marchand's lactobutyrometer 85 

Mare's milk 16 

Marketing butter 227 

Market milk 135 

Markets, dairy 346 

Marschall rennet test 244, 358 

Mason butter worker 224 

Maternity effect on milk secretion 

9, 35, 37 

Matting 257 

Meadow sweet cheese 279 

Media, bacteriological 127 

Media, standardization 128 

Medium Brown separator 191 

Membrane on curd 255 

Method, Cochran's 91 

— Gerber's 92 

— of Failyer and Willard 89 

Leffman and Beam 92 

-— Parson's 90 

— Short's 89 

— Soxhlet's 87 

Metric system 363 

Milk, aeration of 138 

— aerators 139 

— albuminoids of 23 

— analyses 17 

— as affected by maternity 35 

— ash in 25 

— asses'. . . .• 16, 36 

— Ayrshire 33 

— bacteria in Ill 

— bad flavors in 143 

— bitter 113, 143 

— bottles 142 

— bottling 142, 160 

— certified 149 

— cistern 5 

— commercial 36 

— composition affected by age of 

cow 31 

breed 33 

food 30 

of 16 



PAGE 

Milk concentrated 319 

— condensed 316 

— constituents of 17 

: — control of animal over secretion . 14 

— coolers 139 

— cooling 138, 158, 241 

— cows 16 

— definition of 1 

— destruction of germs in 120 

— determination of, bacteria in. . . .125 

— Devon 33 

— differenee in first and last drawn . 30 

— dipping 139 

— diurnal variation 29 

— ducts 2, 5 

— duration of flow 11 

— effect of age on composition 31 

breed on composition .... 32 

food on flavor of 21 

pregnancy on flow 39- 

— evaporated. . . . ; 318 

— ewes 16 

— fast working 267 

— fat. Federal standard for 366 

— fats 20 

— Federal standard for 365 

— fermentations 108 

— first and last drawn 30 

— • for cheese making 233 

— for pasteurization 352 

— from farrow cows 28 

males 10 

organs other than the mam- 
mary glands 10 

spayed cows 28 

virgin animals 10 

— gases in 138 

— goat's 16, 36 

— Guernsey 33 

— holding up 5 

— Holstein-Friesian 33 

— homogenized 303 

— influence of food on composition 30 

— Jersey 33 

— legal standards for 145 

— mare's 16 

— market 135 

— morning and night 28 

— overripe 266 

— pails, covered 158 

— paying for according to percent- 

age of fat 23.8 

— powders 320 



428 



Index 



PAGE 

Milk preservaline 102 

— production of 35 

relation of breed to 52 

food to 47 

— quality of 144 

— record, largest 37 

— relation of viscosity to churn- 

ing 210 

— reservoir 5 

— rich and poor in cheese making.. 238 

— ripening 242 

— ropy or slimy 113 

— sampler, Scovell aliquot 103 

— secretion of 7 

effect of animal on 14 

fright on 14 

maternity on 37 

pregnancy on 12 

sexual excitement on . 14 

incentives to 9 

relation of blood to 11 

of nervous organization 

to 14 

— oi parturition to 9 

— selection of for pasteurization. . . 121 

— sherbets 301 

pineapple 311 

— Short Horn 33 

— signs 56 

— skimmed 315 

— slimy 113 

— solids '. 16 

concerned in cheese making . . 233 

— souring of 116 

— specific gravity of 19 

— standardization of 353 

— standards for certified 151 

— State standards for 368 

— sterile 109 

— straining 137 

— sugar 25, 321 

formation of 9 

— supply, control of 145 

— testing 77 

— tests,*Babcock 91 

Beimling 92 

Butyrometer 93 

Cochran's 91 

Failyer & Willard's 89 

Gerber's 92 

history of 78 

Iowa Station 90 

— — Parsons' 90 



PAGE 

Milk tests, Short's 89 

— thief 101 

— utensils, care of 160 

— variation in 17 

due to febrile condition 29 

in quality 27 

— veins 56 

— viscosity of 210 

Milking 39, 157 

— frequency of 13 

— habits of cows 41 

— importance of complete 12 

regularity 13 

— limit of frequency 40 

— rapidity of 14 

Mill, curd 259 

Minor dairy breeds . 63 

Mint ice cream 310 

Moisture test, Cornell butter 359 

Molds 109 

Monrad, J. H., quoted 277, 323 

Monrad rennet test 243, 358 

Moore, quoted 200 

Morning's milk 28 

Mortensen, quoted 301 

"Mother" starters 202 

Mottled butter 226 

Mousse, cranberry 311 

Mousses 300, 301 

Myristic acid 22 

Myristin 22 

Myseost 322 

^alkali 204 

Neapolitan ice cream 300 

Nervous organization, relation to 

milk secretion 15 

Nesselrode pudding 311 

Neuf chatel cheese 273 

Neumann, quoted 102 

New York dairy Law 387 

Night's milk 28 

Nipple 2 

Nitrate of soda 102 

Non-volatile fats 20, 22 

Normal sodium hydroxid 130 

— fermentations 113 

Normandy cattle 73 

Nut ice cream 301 

Nut ice cream, Federal standard . . . 367 

Nutrient bouillon 127 

Nutritive ratio 51 



Index 



429 



PAGE 

Odor, animal 138 

"Ofif flavor" starters 201 

Official inspection of cows 143 

Ohlssen's test bottle 96 

Oil test churn 84 

Oils, essential in milk 20 

Oleic acid 22 

Olein 22 

Oleomargarine 344 

Oleomargarine law 369 

Oliver, quoted 17 

Operation of milking 39 

Optimum temperature 110 

Orange ice cream 310 

Overripe milk 266 

Overripened cream 208 

Oxygen in ripening cream 197 

Packages, butter 228 

Packing butter 227 

— ice cream 305 

Pails, covered milk 158 

Palatability of foods 50 

Palmitic acid 22 

Palmitin 22 

Paper coil method, Adams 78 

— parchment 229 

Parfait, coffee 311 

— walnut 310 

Parfaits 300, 301 

Parmesan cheese 298 

Parsons, C. L., mentioned 90 

— method 90 

Parturition, relation of to milk 

secretion 9 

Pasteurization 143 

— apparatus 123 

— of milk 121 

— selection of milk for 123, 352 

Pasteurized cream 147, 202 

— milk. Federal standard for 365 

Patrick, Geo. E., mentioned 90 

Paying for milk according to per- 
centage of fat 239 

Pearson, R. A., quoted 353 

Peptogenic fermentations 113, 117 

Period of lactation 37 

Petri dishes 134 

Phenolpthalein 204 

— test 351 

Philadelphia cream cheese 277 

^=^ ice cream 300 

Phosphate of iron 25 



PAGE 

Phosphate of lime 25 

— of magnesia 25 

— of potash 25 

Picnic cheese 273 

Pietertje 2nd, record of 37 

Pineapple cheese 273 

— milk sherbet 311 

— souffle 311 

Pioscope, Heeren's 85 

Plans for cheese factories 327 

creameries 327 

Plating 132 

Pohl curd mill 260 

Points, scale of for cows 44 

Poisonous fermentations 115 

Polled cattle, red 73 

Pont L'Eveque cheese 297 

Port du Salut cheese 298 

Potash, caustic 102 

— chloride of 25 

— phosphate of 25 

Potassium bichromate 102 

— chloride 25 

Pot cheese 322 

Precipitation of casein 24 

Pregnancy, effect on composition 

of milk 27 

on milk secretion 12, 39 

Preparation of artificial starter 354 

Prepared cheese 279 

Prepotency 59 

Preservaline, milk 102 

Preservatives in composite sampling 102 

Press, cheese 262 

Pressed tinware 136 

Pressing cheese 261 

Prevention of infection 118 

Primost 322 

Print butter 229 

Process butter 346 

Federal standard for 366 

Production of cows, value of records. 45 

— of milk, relation of food to 47 

Proteids, relation of to non-pro- 

teids in food 51 

Ptomaines 115 

Pudding ice cream 301 

Pumping system of creamery con- 
struction 328 

Punches 300, 301 

Pure breds 53 

registration of 54 

Putrefactive fermentations. . . .113, 117 



430 



Index 



PAGE 

Quality of butter 229 

— of cheese 267 

— of cream for consumption ...... 148 

— of cream for ice cream 303 

— of milk for cheese making 234 

— of milk for consumption 144 

legal standards for. . . 145, 367 

variations in ; 27 

Quevenne lactometer 80, 350 

— mentioned 80 

Rancid butter 20 

Ratio, nutritive 51 

Ration, "balanced" 51 

— for cows, the ideal . . . . , 47 

Reaction, amphoteric 108 

Recipes for ice cream 308 

Records of production, value of ... . 45 

Red Polled cattle 73 

References . .404 

Register of merit 45 

Registration of pure bred animals. . 54 
Rennet 234, 247, 252, 305 

— extract 248 

— relation of temperature to activ- 

ity of 247 

— tests 243 

— test, Marschall 358 

Monrad 358 

Renovated butter 346 

Renovated butter. Federal stand- 
ard for 366 

Reports and bulletins of Agricul- 
tural Experiment Stations ..... 404 

Reproduction by fission 109 

Richmond formula for total solids. . 350 

Richmond, quoted 18 

Rind of cheese 268 

formation of 263 

Ripeness, churning cream of differ- 
ent degrees 207 

Ripeness of cream, relation to churn- 
ing 211 

Ripening cheese 264 

— cream 195 

amount necessary 204 

effects of 206 

hydrochloric acid in 197 

influence of lactic acid 196 

relation of oxygen to 197 

temperature of 203 

use of starters in 198 

— ferments preparation of 354 



PAGE 

Ripening milk, for cheese making . . 242 

Ropy milk 113 

Roquefort cheese 294 

Roughage . . .- 49 

Rules and tests 349 

Rudimentary teats 56 

Russell, H. L., quoted. . : .123, 147, 200 

Russian separator Sharpies 193 

Rusty tinware 136 

Sage cheese 272 

Salicylic acid 121 

Salt 226, 306 

Salting butter 224 

— curd 260 

Salts of lime 247 

Sampler, Scovell aliquot milk 103 

Sampling, composite 102 

Sanitary stables 152 

Scale of points for butter 232 

cheese 268 

cows 44 

Scales, comparison of lactometer. 80 

of thermometer 349 

Schmierkase 322 

Schweitzer cheese 289 

Score card for butter 232 

cheese 268 

ice cream 312 

Scovell aliquot milk sampler 103 

Scovell, M. A., mentioned 103 

"Scrub" cows 53 

Secretion of milk 7 

Selecting milk for pasteurizing 123 

Selection of breed . . . 52 

— of bull 55 

— of cows 154 

Separation, centrifugal 177 

— of cream 163 

Separator, Accumulator 191 

— adjustable 191 

— Alexandra Jumbo 191, 192 

— Alpha B 191 

— Alpha Baby 191 

— Arnold's 191 

— Baby 191 

— bowls 179 

— Columbia 191 

— Danish Weston 191 

— De Laval 191 

Alpha No. 1 192 

Baby 193 

Standard . 193 



Index 



431 



PAGE 

Separator dilution 177 

— efficiency of 190 

— gravity 177 

— horizontal 179 

— large Danish 191 

— LeFeldt and Lentsch 178 

— mechanical devices in bowl of . .185 

— medium Brown 191 

— Sharpies 191 

Russian 193 

— Simplex 186 

— slime 181 

— small Danish 191 

— system 164 

— theory of centrifugal 180 

— tubular 188 

— United States 187, 191, 193 

— Victoria 191 

Setting, effect of delay on creaming. 171 

— milk for cheese making 251 

Seven-eighths blood, definition 54 

Sewers 331 

Sexual excitement, effect on milk 

secretion 14 

Shallow pan creaming 167 

. system . 164 

Sharpies Russian separator 193 

— separator 191 

Sherbet, lemon 311 

Sherbets 300, 301 

Short, F. G., mentioned 89 

Shorthorn cattle 71 

Shorthorn milk 33 

Short's method 89 

Simmenthal cattle 75 

Simplex separator 186 

Single Gloucester cheese 280 

Size of butter granules 221 

fat globules 116 

Sink, curd , 257 

Skim milk ' 315 

' cheese .269, 345 

Federal standard for 367 

Federal standard for 365 

healthf ulness of . ; 144 

testing by Babcock method. 98 

— test bottle 96 

Skimmer 168 

Skimming . 168 

Slime, separator ; 181 

Slimy milk 113 

"Sloppy" cheese. • 271 

Small Danish separator 191 



PAGE 

Soaking curds 272 

Soda, caustic 102 

— chloride of 25 

Sodium hydroxid, normal 130 

— nitrate 102 

Soft cheese 269 

Solids concerned in cheese making . . 233 

— estimation of total 107, 350 

— formulae for total 350 

— not fat, formulae for 350 

relation to creaming 166 

— total, determination of 77 

Soluble ferments 234 

Souffle, pineapple 311 

Souffles ; 301 

Souring of milk ^ . . . . 116 

Soxhlet's method 87 

Spayed cows, milk from 28 

Specific gravity 79, 82, 349 

of milk 19 

Speed of bowl, relation of, to com- 
plete creaming 182 

Sphincter muscle 4, 5 

Spirillum 109 

Spore 110 

Square cream cheese 277 

Stable, care of 156 

— minimum light requirement 153 

— removal of dust in 156 

Stables, sanitary 152 

— standard air space 153 

Standardization of media 128 

— of milk and cream 353 

Standard separator, De Laval 193 

Standards, Federal 365 

— feeding 48 

— for cream 148 

— legal 365 

— legal milk 145 

— State for milk and cream 368 

"Standing up" of butter 196 

Starters 198, 245 

Starters, "mother" 202 

— "off flavor" 201 

— preparation of 354 

"State brands" for cheese 345 

State standards for milk and 

cream 368 

Statistics 338 

Stearic acid 22 

Stearin 22 

Sterile milk 109 

Sterilization 130, 143 



432 



Index 



PAGE 

Sterilization of milk 121 

Sterilized milk, Federal standard 

for 365 

Stilton cheese 280 

Stimulants and aromatics 50 

Stirred curd cheese 270 

Storch mentioned 199 

Strainers 137 

Straining milk 137 

Strawberry ice cream 310 

Streaked butter 226 

Strippings 30 

Subearth duct for curing rooms .... 334 

Succulent foods, necessity for 50 

Sugar in milk 25 

— milk 321 

formation of 9 

Sulphuric acid 104 

Sunlight, effect on cleanliness. ..... 136 

Surface tension 23, 163 

Sweet cream butter 207 

— curdling 113 

Sweetened condensed milk 316 

Federal standard for 366 

"Swelling" of cream 218 

Swiss cattle. Brown 73 

Swiss cheese 279, 289 

imitation 279 

System, butter and cheese factory. .341 

— Cooley 169 

— gathered cream 341 

— metric 363 

Table butter worker 224 

Tablets, Farrington's alkaline . 205, 351 

Taints, detection of 357 

Teat 2, 4 

Teats, rudimentary in bulls 56 

Temperature, best for churning. . . .211 

— correction for lactometer 81, 350 

— effect of an activity of rennet . . . 247 
churning 211 

— for deep setting creaming 169 

— for ripening cheese 264 

cream 203 

shallow pan creaming 167 

washing butter 221 

— of reading fat in Babcock 

test 95, 106 

— optimum 110 

— relation of to centrifugal separa- 

tion 182 

to churning 211 



PAGE 

Temperature, rise in churning 219 

Test, Babcock 91, 94 

^ calibration of glassware 359 

for butter or cheese 359 

— Beimling 92 

— bottle Babcock 96 

B. and W 96 

cream 96 

detachable neck 96 

double necked 96 

Ohlssen 96 

skimmed milk 96 

— butyrometer 93 

— churn oil 84 

— Cochran 91 

— Cornell butter moisture 359 

— Failyer and Willard' 89 

— for colostrum 18 

— Gerber's 92 

— history of milk 36 

— hot iron 358 

— Iowa Station 90 

— litmus 351 

— Mann's acid 204 

— Marschall rennet 358 

— Monrad rennet 358 

— Parsons' 90 

— phenolphthalein 351 

— rennet .243, 358 

— Short's 89 

— Wisconsin curd 357 

Testing Babcock glassware 359 

— co-operative cow 47 

— of milk : 77 

Tests, acid 204 

— and rules 349 

Texture of butter 222, 230 

relation of wash water to 222 

— of cheese 268 

Theory of centrifugal separator .... 180 
Thermometer, centigrade 349 

— Farhenheit 349 

— scales, comparison of 349 

Three-quarter blood, definition 53 

— bloods, variation in 61 

Tiemann, quoted 197 

Tinware, how to clean 136 

— ironclad 135 

— pressed 136 

— rusty 136 

Tissue, connective 3 

— fatty 3 

Titration of media 128 



Index 



433 



PAGE 

Total solids, determination of 77- 

formulae for 350 

Truckle cheese 273 

Tubercle bacillus 122 

Tubular separator 188 

Turbine steam Babcock 95 

Tutti frutti ice cream 311 

Tyrotoxicon 115 

Udder 2,43 

— caked 38 

Ultimate follicles 3, 6 

United States separator. . 187, 191, 193 

Urea 26 

Useful rules and tests 349 

Utensils care of milk 160 

Van Slyke, quoted 31, 235, 240 

Varieties of cheese 269 

Variation in three-quarter bloods.. . 61 
Variations in quality of milk. ...... 27 

Vaudin, quoted 18 

Vaughn, quoted 115 

Veins, milk 56 

Vertical butter worker 225 

Vessels cleaning 119 

Victoria separator 191 

Virgin animals, milk from 10 

Visco-cream 147 

V.iscogen 147 

— preparation of 352 

viscosity 164 

— of milk 210 

relation of to churning... .210 

— creaming 167 



Volatile fats 

source of 

Von Klenze, quoted . 



PAGE 

20, 197 

21 

. . . .269 



Walnut ice cream 310 

— parfait 310 

Wash water, relation of, to butter 

flavor 223 

texture of butter. .222 

Washing butter 220 

— curds 272 

— tinware 136 

Water ices 300 

— necessity of in ration 50 

— supply of creameries 331 

Wedge shape form 42 

Wells 331 

Wensleydale cheese 280, 289 

"Wet" cheese 271 

Whey 315 

— cheese 322 

— Federal standards for 367 

Wheyn 324 

Whey, removal of 249 

White specks in butter 208 

Willard, Professor, mentioned 89 

Williams, Jesse, mentioned 341 

Wiltshire cheese 280 

Wire strainers, size of 137 

Wisconsin curd test 357 

Woll, F. W., quoted 94 

Working butter 223 

Yeasts 109 

Young America cheese 273 



BB 



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